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Updated:
December 19, 2008 |
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| Leadership Timeline |
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| NIGERIA'S POST-COLONIAL POLITICAL TURMOIL |
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Following Nigeria's independence from Britain in 1960,
the country's political life has been marked by cycles
of corruption, instability and military coups. This
political volatility, spurred on by regional violence,
led to periods of rapid and at times bloody turnover
in the nation's top office. The following are profiles
of Nigeria's leaders since gaining independence.
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| 1960-66 |
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Tafawa Balewa (Northern People's
Congress)
Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became prime minister
during Britain's administration in 1957 and retained
his more...
Tafawa Balewa (Northern People's Congress)
Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became prime minister
during Britain's administration in 1957 and retained
his post after Nigeria's independence in 1960. Balewa
rose to national office due to regional jockeying
for position. Charles Hauss, author of Comparative
Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges,
writes that more prominent leaders then Balewa retained
massive popular support in their home regions, but
had little national authority, and did not believe
that the federal government would have substantial
power.
Balewa was deputy to Ahmadu Bello, arguably the
most powerful politician in Nigeria, who ruled in
the northern region of the country. Following independence,
Bello became the premier of the region and positioned
Balewa in what he thought would be a weaker role as
the federal government's prime minister.
This tenuous regional versus federal relationship
continued throughout the early years of independence,
but in 1966 that changed. On Jan. 15, junior army
officers revolted throughout the country, killing
Balewa and two other prominent politicians: Bello
in the north and Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola, the
prime minister of western Nigeria.
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| 1966 |
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J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi (Military)
Following the military coup that killed Nigeria's first prime minister, Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, and the premiers of the northern more...
J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi (Military)
Following the military coup that killed Nigeria's first prime minister, Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, and the premiers of the northern and western regions, chaos spread throughout the country, with no central government and suddenly diminished regional leadership. In an attempt to restore normalcy, Major General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi Ironsi gained control of the military regime, pledging to quickly return Nigeria to democratic rule.
Ironsi attempted to bring renewed discipline to the army, passed laws allowing for greater press freedoms, and on May 24, 1966, announced plans for a centralized Nigerian constitution. He suspended regional constitutions, dissolved all legislative bodies, banned political parties, and formed a single Federal Military Government.
According to Charles Hauss, the announcement caused widespread concern that the coup that killed Balewa was orchestrated by Ironsi to bring his tribe, the Igbo, to power. In the largely Muslim north, leaders and the population reacted angrily, accusing Ironsi of attempting to undercut Islamic representation in the sprawling nation. Fighting ensued between northerners and the Igbo, in which hundreds were killed. The violence culminated in July 1966, when northerners staged a second military coup in less than a year, killing Ironsi and many other Igbo leaders.
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| 1966-75 |
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Yakubu Gowon (Military)
Following the killing of General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi more...
Yakubu Gowon (Military)
Following the killing of Gen. Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe
Aguiyi Ironsi in July 1966, Ironsi's chief of army
staff, Yakubu Gowon, became head of state and supreme
commander of the armed forces. The federal system
of government was restored on Aug. 31, 1966, but political
dissent continued in the north.
The most virulent violence was in the east where mobs continued to rampage, targeting ethnic Igbo and other tribes.
Gowon responded to the unrest by seeking to limit
the regional powerbrokers and splitting Nigeria's
four political regions into 12 states. Despite this
political effort and the deployment of more troops,
the violence did not end. The eastern region's governor
and military commander, Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu
Ojukwu -- an Oxford-educated millionaire's son --
blamed Gowon's central government for the failure
to bring stability to the area and refused to acknowledge
the central government's authority.
Ojukwu's eastern region seceded on May 30, 1967, declaring the independent Republic of Biafra. Gowon's government responded by sending troops to the region. A bloody civil war ensued, lasting for two and a half years and killing as many as a million Nigerians. In the end, Biafra collapsed and Gowon forcibly folded the region back into Nigeria.
Following this victory, Gowon announced that Nigeria would remain under military rule for six more years, promising to return the country to civilian rule in 1976.
"I solemnly repeat our guarantees of a general amnesty for those misled into rebellion. We guarantee the personal safety of everyone who submits to federal authority," he said at the time.
But four years later, Gowon reneged, saying it was
not feasible to return to civilian rule. Protests
and instability flared throughout the country. On
July 29, 1975, Gowon was ousted in a bloodless coup
led by Brig. Gen. Murtala Muhammad.
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| 1976-79 |
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Olusegun Obasanjo (Military)
With the murder of Murtala Muhammad, the reins of power fell into the hands of his deputy head of state, more... Olusegun Obasanjo (Military)
With the murder of Murtala Muhammad, the reins of power
fell into the hands of his deputy head of state, Lt.
Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba-speaking Christian from
the south. Obasanjo continued the work of his former
chief, including the four-year plan for a democratic
transition. He established the Federal Election Commission
in order to take the potentially rancorous election
process out of partisan hands.
Over the next three years, Obasanjo and his colleagues wrote a new constitution, delineating a presidential role similar to the American presidency. Obasanjo also created seven more states to ease ethnic and religious tensions and allowed states increased autonomy. In 1979, as outlined in Murtala's plan, Obasanjo stepped aside following elections. |
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| 1979-83 |
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Shehu Shagari (National Party of Nigeria)
TAs the transition toward elections progressed, Alhaji
Shehu Shagari, a minister during Nigeria's First Republic, more... Shehu Shagari (National Party of Nigeria)
As the transition toward elections progressed, Alhaji
Shehu Shagari, a minister during Nigeria's First Republic,
helped establish the largely northern National Party
of Nigeria. When elections were held in 1979, Shagari
won with 34 percent of the overall vote. But the vote
failed to satisfy a critical test of the Federal Election
Commission established to oversee the election. In order
to prevent one region from dominating the balloting,
the new Federal Election Commission stipulated a candidate
must win 25 percent of each state's vote. Since Shagari's
vote totals came up short in some states, many declared
his election illegitimate.
Despite the political standoff, Shagari assumed the
newly delineated presidency, marking an end to 13 years
of military rule.
But the questions of how he won his position continued
to plague him through his first four-year term. When
he ran for re-election in 1983, the international community
and officials within Nigeria scrutinized the elections.
Although he handily defeated his rivals in the balloting,
reports emerged of widespread corruption and electioneering.
Violence flared throughout the country as those opposed
to the president launched protests that often turned
to rioting and looting. On New Year's Eve 1983, the
military moved in to restore order, seizing power and
placing Shagari under house arrest. |
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| 1984-85 |
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Muhamaddu Buhari (Military)
The coup that brought Muhamaddu Buhari to power on New Year's Eve 1983 was the beginning of a major effort more... Muhamaddu Buhari (Military)
The coup that brought Muhamaddu Buhari to power on New Year's Eve 1983 was the beginning of a major effort by the military to restore order and clean up what many saw as a corrupt political system. The deposed President Shehu Shagari, his vice president and hundreds of other officials were arrested and detained by the new administration.
 Buhari also embarked on a "War against Indiscipline" intended to stem corruption, indecent behavior and economic mismanagement. The program, which he said was intended to encourage patriotism, forced the public to heed road signs and memorize the national anthem, among other regulations. The "war" affected all aspects of society. For example, according to The Economist, "civil servants who arrived late for work were forced to do the 'frog-jump,' leaping up and down in a squatting position with their hands on their ears."
Buhari also enforced more serious measures, reinstating military law, restricting press freedoms and forbidding criticism of the government. He decreed that former politicians and government officials were to be tried by military tribunals.
Despite Buhari's intensive efforts to create order,
it was the economy that posed the greatest threat to
Nigerian society. Heavily dependent on oil exports,
the economy continued to unravel as international oil
prices collapsed. Opposition, though still stifled,
grew as unemployment, inflation and debt to foreign
nations soared. With public discontent growing, Buhari's
chief of army staff, Ibrahim Babangida, stepped in and
ousted him a bloodless coup on Aug. 27, 1985. |
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| 1985-93 |
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Ibahim Babangida (Military)
Although he had served as President Buhari's army chief,
Ibrahim Babangida quickly renounced the policies of
his former boss, saying his government "does not intend
to lead a country where individuals are under the fear
of expressing themselves." more... Ibahim Babangida (Military)
Although he had served as President Buhari's army chief, Ibrahim Babangida quickly renounced the policies of his former boss, saying his government "does not intend to lead a country where individuals are under the fear of expressing themselves." The new government freed journalists from prison and allowed public scrutiny of detention centers containing people arrested under Buhari's reign.
But many within the military and elsewhere violently opposed the new leader. Two coup attempts occurred during Babangida's eight years in power; the second, in 1990, almost killed Babangida. The leader was merciless in bringing plotters to justice. The Economist reported Babangida "had 69 fellow army officers executed after trials before a military tribunal," for allegedly plotting the coup.
Despite the military upheavals, Babangida moved forward with political reforms, including a new constitution in 1990 that outlined a return to democracy by 1992. Elections to the bicameral National Assembly took place in 1992, but presidential elections, initially scheduled for later that year, were suspended.
The country tried again in June 1993. Moshood Abiola
won the majority of votes, but Babangida's government
nullified the results, citing an electoral process rife
with fraud. Thousands took to the streets protesting
the move and accusing the government of trying to thwart
the will of the people. At least 100 people were killed
during the fighting; the military arrested human rights
activists and shut down newspapers. As the political
crisis spiraled further and further out of control,
the United States suspended aid and other nations denounced
the military government. Facing massive domestic and
international opposition, Babangida resigned on Aug.
27, 1993. |
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| 1993 |
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Ernest Shonekan (Military)
Chief Ernest Shonekan replaced Babangida. Shonekan's main focus was to oversee local elections in late 1993 and presidential elections early in 1994. more... Ernest Shonekan (Military)
Chief Ernest Shonekan replaced Babangida. Shonekan's
main focus was to oversee local elections in late 1993
and presidential elections early in 1994. But even as
the new government worked to plan the elections, differences
within the government quickly emerged. The divisions
came to a head on Nov. 17, 1993, when Shonekan's vice
president -- and before that, Babangida's defense minister
-- Gen. Sani Abacha, overthrew him. |
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| 1993-98 |
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Sani Abacha (Military)
Sani Abacha's seizure of power in 1993 was the beginning
of a five-year reign that would time and time again
draw international criticism. more... Sani Abacha (Military)
Sani Abacha's seizure of power in 1993 was the beginning of a five-year reign that would time and time again draw international criticism. Human rights groups and international leaders, such as South Africa's Nelson Mandela, criticized the new government for its treatment of opponents.
 The Abacha government was one of the most ruthless regimes in Nigeria's history. Dissidents were tortured. Political opponents jailed. The international community reacted in horror when Nobel Prize-winning author Ken Saro-Wiwa was publicly hanged in 1995 for suggesting oil exploration caused environmental damage.
Public opposition grew as fears mounted that Abacha would not step down as he had pledged to do when he took power. Protests turned more and more violent, but suddenly, on June 8, 1998, Abacha died of a heart attack at the age of 54. |
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| 1998-99 |
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Abdulsalami Abubakar (Military)
Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar came to office in the wake
of the brutal Abacha regime, promising to return Nigeria
to a civilian government. more... Abdulsalami Abubakar (Military)
Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar came to office in the wake
of the brutal Abacha regime, promising to return Nigeria
to a civilian government. He called for internal reforms,
including changes to the prison system, the release
of political prisoners and better management of public
money to combat corruption.
 "It is clear that Nigerians want a country where fairness, justice and equity are not mass slogans but principles put into timely and indiscriminate practice. Nigerians want true democracy which must be based on a sound democratic foundation to ensure fulfillment and sustenance," Abubakar said.
Abubakar maintained his commitment to democratic reforms for his year as Nigeria's ruler. When he retired from the army in 1999, one of his last acts was to abolish the law allowing for detention without trial. In his farewell speech in May 1999, he defended his government's actions, but discouraged the military from attempting to regain power as they had so often in the past. |
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| 1999-2007 |
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Olusegun
Obasanjo (People's Democratic Party)
During Sani Abacha's brutal regime, former military
ruler Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, who had overseen a transition
to democracy 20 years earlier more... Olusegun
Obasanjo (People's Democratic Party)
During Sani Abacha's brutal regime, former military
ruler Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, who had overseen a transition
to democracy 20 years earlier, was accused of plotting
a coup against the government and sentenced to 25
years in prison. Following Abacha's death, however,
his successor released Obasanjo.
 Still widely supported for following through with
his pledge to relinquish power in 1979, he was elected
to return to the presidency on May 29, 1999 -- 20
years after leaving office.
Obasanjo's electoral victory was widely seen as the
most promising development in Nigeria in decades;
however, there were still causes for concern. Chris
Fomunyoh, regional director of Central and West Africa
Programs for the National Democratic Institute, said
that in 1999 most Nigerians were primarily interested
in getting the military out of the political process
and back to the barracks. In order to achieve that,
he said, they were willing to live with an electoral
process that still suffered considerable shortcomings.
Regional and religious violence left more than 10,000
people dead during Obasanjo's first term as president
and the economy continued to struggle. Despite these
problems, he was re-elected in April 2003.
In his second four-year term, Obasanjo continued his
focus on curbing official corruption; his Economic
and Financial Crimes Commission prosecuted government
ministers and others for corruption. But critics have
charged that the EFCC has prosecuted corruption selectively,
targeting Obasanjo's political opponents.
Controversy also emerged when Obasanjo sought to amend
the constitution to allow himself to run for a third
term in order to complete his reforms, he said. The
Senate rejected the amendment in May 2006, but the
incident cast a shadow on the president's legacy as
a majority of Nigerians opposed the third-term extension.
Because
the National Assembly never ratified the amendment,
Obasanjo stepped down after general elections in April
2007.
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| 2007-Present |
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Umaru
Yar'Adua (People's Democratic Party)
The April 2007 election of Umaru Yar'Adua as Olusegun Obasanjo's
successor was rife with controversy more... Umaru
Yar'Adua (People's Democratic Party)
The April 2007 election of Umaru Yar'Adua as Olusegun Obasanjo's successor was rife with controversy, and it wasn't until December 2008 that Nigeria's Supreme Court confirmed his win.
At the start of the campaign, the Independent National
Electoral Commission said Obasanjo's vice president,
Atiku Abubakar, could not run because of fraud charges,
but later he was able to get on the ballot through
court challenges as the candidate of the Action Congress.
Yar'Adua ran as a member of the People's Democratic
Party, and Muhammadu Buhari ran for the opposition
All Nigeria Peoples Party.
Although the INEC deemed Yar'Adua the winner with
70 percent of the vote, Abubakar and Buhari filed
legal challenges based on allegations of election
fraud. On Dec. 12, 2008, the Supreme Court acknowledged
flaws in the election but said the plaintiffs could
not prove the problems were widespread enough to nullify
the results.
According to the Associated Press, there were reports
of people purchasing votes, stuffing ballot boxes
and intimidating voters. An estimated 200 people died
in violence leading up to the vote.
Meanwhile, Yar'Adua's health remains in question.
He was rushed to a German hospital with an undisclosed
ailment while campaigning in 2007, and in April he
returned to Europe for further treatment for what
his spokesman described as an "allergic reaction,"
Bloomberg News reported.
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-- Compiled
from wire reports and other media sources
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