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				Chimps Observed Alan talks with pioneering chimp researcher Jane Goodall.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: If you don't think this looks like chimp habitat you'd be right. We're in Tucson, Arizona, at a reception celebrating the world's longest-running wildlife study. ( drumbeats continue ) 40 years ago, Jane Goodall began a revolution in our view of chimpanzees. Before her work, people didn't consider that chimpanzees might have, first of all, a mind that they might be emotional animals that they might have intelligence and she has revealed to the world just how complex chimpanzee society is. I think that it's very, very important for Jane to take what she has come to know in her bones and her blood by spending her lifetime with chimpanzees and helping the rest of the world to recognize that. They're disappearing at an alarming rate and it would be very, very sad for our children not... and grandchildren not to have the opportunity to know that these creatures are out there in the world. When you look at a chimpanzee you don't just see an animal; actually, you see an individual. Have you looked into the eyes of a chimpanzee? Tonight, I'm delighted and privileged to introduce to you this woman who has so profoundly changed the world. Ladies and gentlemen, Dr. Jane Goodall. ALDA: Later at a public lecture, Jane Goodall introduced herself in a language she learned long ago and far away. Thank you, Janice, and good evening, ladies and gentlemen. I want to start off with a chimpanzee greeting, the distance call just to say "hello" in a language that I love. ( hoots tentatively, then more excitedly ) ( audience applauds ) So if we can have the lights off including the one on me, please. Right, thanks. ALDA: Jane Goodall started observing chimps in the wild in 1960 when she was 26. She had no experience and no formal qualifications but with persistence, good luck, a lot of patience and above all, an open mind she was able to enter the hitherto secret world of our closest cousins. In 1986, alarmed at the drastic decline in chimpanzee numbers she decided to give something back to her primate friends and turn her attention to conservation. Now she spends almost all her time on the road lecturing, speaking out on behalf of chimps. Tucson is where I caught up with her. ALDA: I asked my eight-year-old granddaughter what she'd like to ask you and she said, "Can she speak their language? " Oh... ( grunts ) ( laughs ): Ah! Great! You know what that means, yes? No, I hope it means something we can do on television. Guess... ( grunts again ) What's that? If I have a big pile of fruit and you come up to me, and I go ( grunts )... "Go away! " Oh, "go away. " ( tries to grunt ) Say it again. ( grunts ) ( grunts ) And they make that gesture, like this? It's like that. Like this-- it's a "go away" gesture, isn't it? Okay, now, supposing you have a big pile of fruit and you're guzzling it and I'm younger than you are and less... and I'm subordinate to you and I come up to you and I go ( hoots softly ). Pretty clear. Pretty clear, isn't it? In fact, the postures and gestures-- embracing, kissing, patting on the back, swaggering, tickling-- these things we see in human cultures around the world and in chimps they appear in the same context and they clearly mean the same kind of thing. ALDA: It was domestic hens that were to provide the first indication of Jane Goodall's tremendous talent for observing animals. At age four, growing up in England she just couldn't figure out how chickens laid eggs. There's the egg. So where was the hole big enough for the egg to come out? And apparently, I was asking everyone because I looked and I looked and I couldn't see a hole that big. ALDA: It was obvious to Jane what she had to do-- witness an egg being laid which, in this case, took place in small hen houses. So the next step was to climb inside a hen house. GOODALL: What's amazing, looking back is seeing this little scientist in the making. The question I was asking, I didn't get the answer-- find out for myself, climb up after her. She flies out frightened. Well, then the other hens will be frightened of this place. I mean, I knew that. And so I climbed into an empty one and waited. And I waited, apparently at least four hours, if not more. My family called the police because they didn't know where I was. And dusk was just falling. And I was rushing back towards the house all covered in straw. And my mother saw me and instead of being mad at me and reprimanding me which would have killed the excitement she saw my shining eyes and she sat down to hear this wonderful story. When I was around ten towards the end of World War II I found Tarzan of the Apes, the books and I fell passionately in love. Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle. I was incredibly jealous of that wimpy Jane of his. And I thought I would have been a much better mate for Tarzan which I would have been. Yes! Think what he could have accomplished. Exactly. And so, that was when I dreamed that when I grew up I would go to Africa, I would live with animals and I would write books about them. ALDA: Jane saved up enough to visit a friend in East Africa where she got a job assisting in Louis Leakey's fossil-hunting excavations at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The famous paleontologist was impressed by Jane's knowledge of animals so to gain insight into human evolution he suggested Jane study chimpanzee behavior. Leakey knew just the place: the remote Gombe Stream Reserve on the eastern edge of the chimpanzee's home range-- the belt of equatorial rain forest which is now fragmented but once stretched across Africa. After much fussing by the British colonial authorities about the idea of sending a young lady out alone in the bush Jane started work, chaperoned by her ever-supportive mother. The only problem was the chimps-- they were there, all right but they had no interest in being studied. GOODALL: I couldn't get near them until one never-to-be-forgotten day. I was walking through long, wet grass after a very frustrating morning and through the vegetation, I saw this dark shape squatting on this golden-colored termite mound and I was peering and peering and I saw... he had his back to me. He was picking pieces of grass and clearly poking them at the termites but I just couldn't quite see and I didn't dare move. And he's obviously picking something off. And I saw him reach out and pick a twig and strip the leaves. And that was so exciting because we used to think we were the only creatures on the planet who used and made tools. ALDA: We now know that chimps use tools all the time but it's hard to overstate the impact of that first observation. It meant that chimps and humans must have inherited tool use from our common ancestor before our evolution divided six million years ago. Suddenly, we and our cousins seemed much closer. ( chimps hooting and grunting ) Then just one month later came another breakthrough. Jane saw chimps eating meat and soon after, observed them hunting monkeys. Again it's been seen many times since but here for the second time was this young unknown turning the academic world upside down-- something she would continue to do with regularity. ( chimps screeching ) ALDA: I get the impression you saw things as they really were instead of through the prism of the stereotypes that were prevalent at the time. Everybody said they didn't make tools, but you saw them. And you saw... over decades you saw things as they really were. Why? What was the difference between what you did and what other people have done? Well, I think Louis Leakey deliberately picked someone who had not been to university because he felt he wanted an unbiased mind. And so, you know, when he did get me into Cambridge to do a Ph.D. after a whole year in the field I found when I got there that I shouldn't have named the chimps. I should've given them numbers. I shouldn't be describing their personalities because only humans had those. And when I started talking about the mind and rational thought in chimps that was an absolutely shocking thing to do. That was... only humans who had rational minds. And then finally, the worst anthropomorphic sin of all to give them, ascribe to them human-like emotions like happiness, sadness, fear and despair. ALDA: Because she followed individual chimp families generation after generation Jane made important discoveries about motherhood. Mothers who are protective, tolerant and supportive raise relaxed, successful kids who'll pass on those qualities to their kids. Mothers who are harsh and intolerant raise less-successful kids. Child psychologists soon realized this insight applies to humans, too-- another way in which we resemble our primate ancestors. GOODALL: Children are so often not being treated in the way that the primate has been conditioned to be treated through these thousands of years of evolution. And is the early lack of good experience in so many children whose parents are dysfunctional, who go to bad day care-- is that contributing to some of the violence and dysfunctional behavior that we see in adolescents today? I believe so, and more and more people do believe so. ALDA: In 1974, war broke out among the chimps at Gombe. It was another big discovery. A few chimps who had split off from the main group were systematically annihilated over a four-year period. The main group would send out patrols to locate and hunt down the renegades and kidnap any young females. ALDA: So, do you think that was the motivation for the warfare, to recruit adolescent females? Or was it to get territory? Or was it just pure hatred... hatred of the strange? The patrols that are regularly made around the territory I think are partly to recruit adolescents partly, if they can, to enlarge their territory for their own females and young at the expense of a weaker neighbor. But the attacks seemed to be motivated by some kind of xenophobia a sort of hatred of strangers. But when I first published these intercommunity attacks a lot of scientists criticized me. The argument was that if this was published, then people would seize on that as evidence that we humans are innately aggressive and therefore war is inevitable. And therefore, we should avoid knowing the truth because it might be politically inconvenient. Right, that's exactly how it was. And you see, I think the point here is that I do believe we have inherited aggressive tendencies from our very ancient primate past just as the chimps have. But so, too, have we inherited tendencies for love, compassion and altruism. And with our sophisticated minds, we are capable of pushing which of these two inherited traits we want to follow. ALDA: There's now a permanent study center at Gombe. Jane gets back there maybe a couple of times a year. Gombe, now a national park, is only 30 square miles sheltering just 150 chimps entirely surrounded by new farmland. Right across equatorial Africa where perhaps a million chimps lived a hundred years ago development is racing ahead. Following in its wake has come a terrible new trade in wild animals for human consumption. The bush meat trade, vast and unprecedented is cleaning out the forests, chimps included. Their population is now down to about 150,000. The world's wildlife scientists, including Jane Goodall are saying something has to be done about bush meat. We'll have a story on the problem later in the program. But first we're going to look at the latest exciting discoveries primatologists have made about chimps. It seems that chimps have their own traditions, like people. Don't go away. ALDA: In the rain forests of Africa

				Chimp Nations Differences among chimp groups suggest chimpanzees have cultures, too. How are complex traditions passed down through generations?
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: one thing happens pretty frequently: It rains. And when the rain starts, adult male chimps go a little crazy charging around, pulling at vegetation and hooting. ( chimp hooting ) When Jane Goodall first saw this at Gombe she called it the "rain dance. " ( chimp hooting ) We don't know why they do this but we do know that it happens at all six sites where chimps have now been intensively studied... except one. Chimps do not do the rain dance at Bossou in Guinea in West Africa. In fact, chimp researchers have found 39 behavior patterns that exist in some places but not others. Take hand-clasp grooming, for example in which two chimps clasp hands above their heads while grooming. This happens at only three of the six sites-- for example, here at Kibale Forest in Uganda but not 300 miles south at Gombe in Tanzania where there's still grooming, but with arms held firmly down. Then less than a hundred miles further south at Mahale, Tanzania, up go the arms again. In the Tai Forest and at Bossou chimps are especially skilled at using hammers-- like rocks or logs-- to crack several kinds of nuts. But at two other sites where there are plenty of nuts hammers are not used which seems a shame, since the nuts are clearly delicious. One behavior that's unique to the Tai Forest is this: using sticks to fish the marrow out of the bones of monkeys that have been hunted even though chimps hunt monkeys everywhere. GOODALL: There are different tool-using behaviors everywhere where chimps have been observed. And, you know, I like to think of these as primitive cultures. And what's fascinating here is that obviously at some point one chimpanzee in that population was the first to do something because they're not born termite-fishing and so forth. And then the others, if it's adaptive, will imitate and so it becomes a part of their behavioral tradition. ALDA: Chimps passing traditions, or cultures through the generations makes them, once again, a lot like people. It also means that young chimps have to be good at learning; otherwise, distinctive traditions-- like hammering nuts or special ways to groom-- would just die out. How animals learn is a fascinating and controversial subject because it can provide a window into their minds. ALDA: When they observe another chimp using a tool, say do you believe that they have the idea that if they use that tool in that way they'll get a certain result? Are they thinking ahead in that way or are they just... mimicking the use of the tool and then find out later that it has this payoff? It depends how old they are. I think the infants, you know they first begin they show little bits of tool-using behavior as they're watching their mothers or their siblings and they discover later. In fact, we saw one infant and she's doing her very first attempts to fish for termites-- and you're supposed to have a little stem about that big at least and she's using something this big. And it happens to be a termite heap that's really very productive. So when she's got her little twig and she's about two years old she gets it down and this large soldier termite-- you know, they're about that big-- and she looks at it, and she hands it to her mother. And her mother doesn't take the tool; she picks the ant off and eats it. And the little one goes on fishing and she gets another ant and she looks at it and she goes... takes a bite and goes like this... and rushes away from the heap and she goes: ( whimpering ) It's so funny. She has the same tastes I do about termites. ALDA: Wild chimps obviously learn by observation but here at a chimp sanctuary in Florida they want to find out how much chimps understand when they learn. You can't figure that out from watching in the wild because it takes controlled experiments. ( chimp barking ) YOUNG WOMAN: Okay, Grub, Grubby... ALDA: The six animals here made cute pets or performers as infants. Then they became big, strong and unwanted. Jane Goodall believes sanctuaries like this are essential, where discarded chimps can live the social and active lives that their minds deserve. But their presence here provides an opportunity for a psychologist from Florida Atlantic University David Bjorkland. BJORKLAND: These chimpanzees in particular have a different rearing history than wild chimpanzees. One fascinating thing about them is from early on-- the ones I'm working with, anyway-- have had significant human interaction in many cases, treated much like human children. YOUNG WOMAN: Okay, Grub, here you go. Here's the tool you're going to use, Grub. ALDA: It's normal for sanctuaries to provide absorbing objects, like bamboo with honey inside. Psychology experiments can be an interesting way for the animals to pass the time as well. Here's Noelle, a four-year-old female. Chimps mature at about the same rate as people so Noelle's a child. She investigates some strange new objects. Next, Noelle is shown how to use the hammer and nail. Ready? BJORKLAND: So, we demonstrate the task and then we wait ten minutes. And ten minutes is long enough to keep the action out of short-term memory. ALDA: When she gets the objects back right away Noelle shows she's learned what to do. She could be cracking forest nuts by now but if she was, would she get the concept? Would she understand just by seeing that the point is to get to the nut inside? To answer that, we're going to present nine-year-old Grub with a bigger challenge. As with Noelle, he first gets some objects to explore. Watch what I do, watch. ( rattling ) Doesn't that sound pretty? Okay, you ready? I'll do again, watch. ALDA: Then a novel use is demonstrated. Watch. ( rattling ) ALDA: And, of course, as you'd expect, the nine-year-old has no problem later showing he learned the lesson. He's actually rather nonchalant about the whole thing. ( rattling ) But now the real test. Grub's given four new objects. First we'll check if he might somehow have had some prior exposure to them. They're interesting, but there's little doubt he doesn't know what they could be used for. Next the demonstration. Ready? ( clanging ) ALDA: Grub is very attentive. You watching? Here I go. ( clanging ) ALDA: Grub sees the cymbals being used but later he's given back only the trowels. Right away he gets it. He saw the cymbals and now he's generalized it to the trowels-- very different shape, different handle. He's really very happy about it, too. We think that that shows he has not just learned a specific behavior but he's generalized, he's learned a concept he's generalized the concept. ALDA: Psychologists regard getting the underlying concept like this as a more sophisticated form of learning than simply copying an action. Humans learn this way. Our complex societies couldn't exist without it. But it seems the ability must go back a long way. BJORKLAND: This gives us one possible mechanism for cognitive evolution-- what chimpanzees, human beings and maybe our common ancestors had in common. So, for me, it tells us something about the chimpanzee mind, but it also tells us something about how, quite possibly, we became human. ALDA: We'll never really know if conceptual learning happens in the wild because it's impossible to know if young chimps are generalizing a concept or if they're just doing something they've seen adults do before. David Bjorkland believes it may be only human-raised chimps like Noelle and Grub, who can conceptualize actions while wild chimps just copy them. But either way, different chimp groups do learn their own distinctive traditions passing them down through the generations almost like different chimp nations. That doesn't make chimps human, but it does make chimps chimps. Right below Frans De Waal's office at Yerkes Primate Center in Atlanta

				Chimps Getting Along Observations by primatologist Frans de Waal suggest chimps live by the Golden Rule.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: there's a group of 19 chimps who are free to interact in their own ways. Frans believes, like Jane Goodall that much chimp and human behavior is closely related. This is Jimoh, the alpha male and Peony, the dominant female, with her daughter. The adolescent males in the group often act like adolescents. But the fights rarely get serious. ( chimp screeching ) They usually end in friendly reconciliations-- this one involving tickling and laughter. Now we will throw them in one at a time. Okay. ALDA: When I visited Frans five years ago some new experiments were convincing him that even human ideas like morality might have parallels in chimp behavior. It's to see who shares with whom. ALDA: These bundles of leaves are a treat for the chimps-- an addition to their regular diet. That's a juvenile who took it and the alpha male takes it over from him, see. ALDA: Most of the chimps gather around one of the bundles and peacefully share the leaves. But the bundle right below us was taken by a young female called Georgia who is much less willing to share. You think Georgia is stingy because she hasn't learned to share yet or she's just naturally stingy? Well, in human terms you would almost say that she doesn't have the confidence yet and the position yet to be generous with others. She's still very much in sort of competitive mode like, "How much can I get myself? " ALDA: Georgia sat with her back to us, firmly monopolizing her bundle. In a year, we collect thousands of food transfers between individuals. We see that among adults, it's reciprocal-- if I share a lot with you you will share a lot with me. Juveniles are totally out of this. Juveniles work on a stealing operation. ALDA: Georgia's tactic of stealing backfires as another juvenile steals the whole bundle from her. That's a typical juvenile way of doing it, you know? ALDA: Georgia's selfishness has other consequences, too. Individuals such as Georgia who are not very generous when they are in need of food they're the first ones to be rejected by other individuals. And so it is as if the other individuals are saying "Well, you're never sharing with me; why should I share with you? " And this is also how young females such as Georgia are gradually learning it is much better to cooperate with a system like that-- we get, actually, more out of it by cooperating and contributing to it. ALDA: Frans and his research assistant, Mike Seres have kept track in the thousands of trials they have run of just who shares with whom. What's remarkable is that the chimps keep track, too. So if one chimp shares food with another in the morning the generosity is returned by a spell of grooming in the afternoon. The very young are allowed to get away with behavior that the females in this group don't tolerate from an adolescent male. He picks up a stick and tries intimidation but the group isn't impressed. ( chimp screeches ) Here's Georgia, again causing trouble. Jimoh ambles over, nudges her gently and she holds out her hand in apology. Again, Jimoh breaks up a squabble. So while as in human society there's conflict and aggression chimps have many strategies for keeping the peace. Frans sees in these behaviors the root of what in humans we call morality. DE WAAL: They have many of the emotions and elements of man morality such as empathy and sympathy probably. Generosity... certain forms of altruism rules and regulations, conflict resolution which is one of my main interests is how they resolve conflicts among themselves. And basically you can look at human morality as a system that resolves conflicts among parties that live in one society. Does that lead you to think in a different way about the origins of human morality than you did before? Human morality must have some deep evolutionary roots. It must come from somewhere. And probably in other animals we can find not the whole system but we can find certain elements of human morality. And that is what I am seeing when I look at chimpanzees. ALDA:

				Chimp Minds Controlled experiments give scientists insight into the chimpanzee's mind.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: We're back at the Florida chimp sanctuary where we tested learning abilities this time to see whether chimps have a grasp of how the world should work. Do they, like people, have some general scheme in their minds against which they can measure events? A basic element in such a scheme would have to be the ability to distinguish live from not-live. BJORKLAND: The always interesting rock. MAN: And finally, the log. BJORKLAND: Will the chimps understand the difference between animate and inanimate objects which, of course, at one level they do, but more importantly will they think it peculiar when they see something like... a mallard duck, for example, or a little blackbird being used as a screwdriver? Which, blackbirds are not typically used as screwdrivers. Or when they see someone take a rock and treat it like a pet treat it very kindly and speak to it. ALDA: First we're going to work with Noelle the four-year-old female. She loves all the attention. So, Tina, you treat the hawk as if it's a piece of sandpaper and Jen, you treat the hammer as if it's a hammer. ALDA: Here we're comparing inanimate objects treated as inanimate... to something that should be alive but is treated as if it isn't. Already you can see Noelle's intrigued by that one. BJORKLAND: Time. ALDA: A strict protocol is followed designed to eliminate any factors which might bias the chimp's impressions. BJORKLAND: Time, together. ALDA: Finally, Noelle gets to point out which one she'd like to investigate further and yes, it's the strange one, hawk-sandpaper. Next Noelle is shown a rock, treated as a pet... TINA ( cooing ): What a pretty rock. Beautiful, look at that. Look at the rock. ALDA: Versus rock as rock. BJORKLAND: Time. ALDA: And the pet rock's the interesting one. We're going to do the blackbird. Jen, you go first. You're going to treat it animately. Tina, you go second and it will be as a screwdriver, inanimately, okay? Anytime you're ready. Go ahead. JEN: Oh, there you are... ALDA: So far, Noelle's choices could be explained if she just likes anything animate-- either the object itself or its treatment. But now for the first time she's facing some animateness on both sides-- blackbird-pet versus blackbird-screwdriver. BJORKLAND: Time. ALDA: But she still gets it-- blackbird-screwdriver was the weird one. So far it's a solid world-view. BJORKLAND: Okay, Tina, you go first. Go ahead. ALDA: Now comes the toughest challenge. Look at that, what a cute log.... ALDA: Inanimate log treated like animate pet up against a powerful combination. You're so cute. ALDA: Animate duck treated like an animate object. That's a kind of double dose of animateness. JEN: What are you doing in there? What were you doing in that bucket, you silly mallard? ALDA: And it's too attractive for the young chimp. The pet log should have violated her expectations as psychologists say but she missed it, and that's normal for Noelle. BJORKLAND: Generally when there's a choice for Noelle between an animate object and an inanimate object she'll go with the animate object no matter how it's being treated. But you did see earlier when there were the blackbirds-- one being treated like a screwdriver and one being treated like a pet-- she went with the one being treated like a screwdriver. So there's a little bit of going-for-the-violation- of-expectation, Noelle. But when push comes to shove if she has a choice between an animate object no matter how it's treated, she tends to go towards that. ALDA: Human three-year-olds also fail this test. But now let's see how nine-year-old Grub does with the identical series of tests. First hawk-sandpaper... against hammer. BJORKLAND: Time. MAN: Okay, go look. ALDA: No problem-- but as with Noelle this was the only animate element in this trial so this wasn't much of a test. There you are... ALDA: Next, pet rock against rock-rock. BJORKLAND: Time. ALDA: No problem. But again, this was the only choice which had any animate element in the way it was treated. Now animate blackbird treated animately against screwdriver-blackbird. It's a tougher choice, but like Noelle he still picks out the one that's peculiar. Go look. ALDA: Finally the big test. The doubly attractive mallard treated animately against the log treated animately. This is the one Noelle failed. TINA: How pretty you are. Yes, what a... beautiful log you are. ALDA: No problem. Grub is casually confident in his choice. At age nine, he has as solid a concept in his mind of how things should be as the same age human. Scientists believe that chimps can think conceptually they can learn conceptually and they can even handle abstract concepts as we'll see next. Hi, sweetie. ALDA: This is Sally Boysen a researcher who, like the Florida researchers also works with rescued and orphaned chimps. A couple of years ago she showed me how chimps get abstract concepts with ease. We're going to run a "hide and seek" experiment using a scale-model room and a matching real room that's just a few feet away. Sally says that chimps can get the connection between the two-- that one can be a symbol for the other. Here's our little miniature room. And we have a replica of that cupboard. And a little chair right here... Blue tub. We have a miniature tree here. ALDA: And this little can here? That's the item we're going to hide. Oh, I see. They'll watch as we hide this like under the blue tub. Yeah. And then I go in the real room and hide a real can of soda. And then the chimp has to pay attention to where we hid it here and then find it in the same place inside. What's the real room look like compared to this? Bigger. Yes, right. ALDA: Everything in the model has its full-scale counterpart That doesn't open? Yeah, it does. The chimps know how... You have to be a chimp... You just go like this. It's kind of an IQ test. What can I say? I see, yeah. Whoops. ALDA: We're going to be working with strong, full-grown animals. You stay out here. Right-- you're going to be in there, huh? Yeah. Now, you're safe in there? Sure, but don't try this at home. Oh, okay. I haven't got a chimp at home. ( chimps screeching ) BOYSEN: Miss Sheeba? Very nice, okay, she has to get a little rowdy here. ( Boysen panting ) This is so much fun, isn't it? ALDA: Sheeba is 17 years old, raised from age two by Sally. ( Sheeba and Boysen hooting ) ( Sheeba shrieks ) BOYSEN ( laughing ): That was impressive! That was cute. BOYSEN: That was very impressive. Come on, let's go talk about the scale-model study. ( Sheeba noisily releasing gas ) You know, I've worked with actors like this before. ( Boysen cackling ) ALDA: I have to admit, Sheeba's not striking me as much of an intellectual yet. BOYSEN: Okay, I've got some real Pepsi for you, all right? All right, where shall we hide it? Let's see. I'm going to take this little one. Are you watching me? Yeah, I'm going to put it in here, okay? Watch-- I'm going to put it right in here. So we put it in here. Shall I show you again? Look, I put it right in here. Isn't that cool? I know, I have makeup on. See my lips? I know, I have different makeup on. Now, you see that? We're going to keep on going. Now you stay right here, okay? I'll be right back. I'm going to hide this real one for you, okay? Stay right there, stay there. Where is it? Where did we put it? In here, right. There's the little one. Okay, go find the real one for me. Hurry, hurry. See if you can find it. ( applauding ): Oh, good work! ALDA: She gets it opened. WOMAN: Here's Big Snoopy and this is his little friend... ALDA: Now look at how a 2½-year-old human does in the same experiment. WOMAN: Look, I'm hiding Little Snoopy. ALDA: This experiment has been tried with hundreds of children. WOMAN: You wait here while I go hide Big Snoopy. I'm going to hide him in the same place in his room. BOY: And I'll go find him. Okay. Okay, Amos, Big Snoopy is ready. Can you come find him? Remember, he's hiding in the same place in his room that Little Snoopy is hiding in. AMOS: Where is he hiding? WOMAN: Remember, Big Snoopy's hiding... ALDA: Until about age three kids never get that the model symbolizes the real room. BOYSEN: Sheeb, that's where I put the little can, see it? Okay, I'm going to go hide... ALDA: So in one way Sheeba is sharper than the average 2½-year-old human. BOYSEN: Don't cheat, I'll be right back. ALDA: There's no doubt that Sheeba sees the model as representing the real room. That's abstract thinking the way humans do it. So in this respect, chimps really are us. BOYSEN: Can you remind me? Remind me where I put it... right there! Okay, see if you can get it for me-- hurry, go on. Oh, you found it-- all right! Good work, good work! ( whining rhythmic call ) ALDA: People have hunted here for thousands of years

				Chimps Under the Gun A Frontiers Special Report - an in-depth look at the illegal 'bushmeat' trade that's decimating wild chimp populations.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: but in the last decade or so a vast new trade in wild animals-- or bush meat, as it's known-- has spread through the region. It's not subsistence hunting by locals. It's a long-distance trade that's reaching into big cities sometimes even to Europe and America. We're going to look at the bush meat trade in our final story, and please be aware that we're going to show some quite graphic scenes. ALDA: What about the bush meat problem? That sounds like an enormously serious problem. That's the worst conservation threat to the great apes in the Great Congo basin. The Congo basin has been their stronghold the place in Africa where they were the only significant populations 12 years ago. ALDA: One man focused the world's attention on the bush meat trade-- Karl Amman, a writer and photographer who lives with his wife, Kathy, outside Nairobi in Kenya. Ah, yes, uh, Carol, this is Karl Amman. Can we just reconfirm... AMMAN: In 1988, we did this trip on the Congo River. We were in one of these legendary Congo River boats which are essentially big floating villages. ALDA: The trip took Karl and Kathy into the heart of one of the world's last great forest wildernesses covering a million square miles. Most of the remaining 150,000 chimps live here. 100 years ago, there were perhaps a million chimps when forests were much more extensive. The river boats are big traveling markets but Karl was surprised by what was being traded. AMMAN: We saw a hell of a lot of wildlife coming on board-- smoked, fresh, and, uh, some still alive. ALDA: There were many monkeys and baby chimps. They took pity on one chimp that was tied up and bought it. Its family had undoubtedly been shot. Overall, it was the sheer numbers of wild animals that struck them. AMMAN: The feeling was, there's something going on. If we didn't know about it probably a lot of people didn't know about it and I felt I wanted to further investigate how big an issue this really was. ALDA: Karl embarked on a series of trips across half a dozen central African countries. It soon became clear that something was going on and yes, it was a big issue. It starts with foreign development money pouring into the region. The primary goal is to take out the most valuable trees for export. And the only way to get in is to build roads thousands of miles of them penetrating what was impenetrable. AMMAN: They're opening up those very, very deep corners of the forest where hunters haven't had any access and which have been pretty undisturbed for, you know, forever. ALDA: The bush meat trade works like this: At the head of each logging road is a camp for workers, housing several hundred people. Professional hunters fan out into the forest from each camp. AMMAN: We have now left the main road and are following on this hunting trail to where Désiré said he shot, at 6:00 this morning, four gorillas. ALDA: Saying he was simply interested in the animals they were finding Karl persuaded many hunters to take him along. Killing any great apes-- chimps and gorillas-- is illegal everywhere and the hunting of most other wildlife is strictly limited. ( camera shutter clicking ) ALDA: But there is essentially no enforcement of wildlife laws although no hunters were keen on their business being exposed. ( camera shutter clicks ) AMMAN: I'm a little bit worried because these guys have started talking which is essentially bad news because this is sensitive footage by any standards. ALDA: After dozens of trips tirelessly hiking in and out on logging roads observing hunters and checking markets Karl has built up a comprehensive picture of the bush meat trade. The first stop for the bush meat is usually one of the forest hunting camps. At this one in Congo Karl saw chimps that had just been brought in along with several orphaned babies. ( shrieking ) ALDA: Babies don't bring much of a price as meat so the hunters don't shoot them along with the adults. Instead, they try to sell them as pets. Of course, many don't survive. ( woman laughing ) ALDA: At the hunting camps, most of the meat is smoked. It may have to travel for a week or more before reaching the eventual consumer. AMMAN ( speaking French ): MAN: ALDA: These are chimp parts. MAN 2: MAN 1: MAN 2: MAN 1: ALDA: There are thousands of bush meat processing camps all over the region. They supply, first, forest markets like this where Karl saw some of the endangered bonobo chimpanzees a smaller relative of the common chimp. AMMAN: We're here at this weekly forest market and we have just come across this bonobo carcass which was just brought in by some traders. And it's a relatively fresh carcass. It's smoked, but it's probably not more than a few days old. And it's going to be sold here for roughly about seven to eight dollars. AMMAN ( speaking French ): MAN: AMMAN: So, okay, this is 100,000 and this is 50,000. That's another piece of chimp. MAN 2: You see the hand. ALDA: Out in the forest the logging camps are the first large-scale consumers of bush meat. ( man speaking French ) ALDA: Here endangered forest elephant is being consumed along with gorilla. AMMAN ( speaking French ): ALDA Perhaps three-quarters of the bush meat is trucked out of the forest along the same new roads that brought the hunters and loggers in. ( truck rattling ) ALDA: Finally it gets to one of hundreds of towns and cities in the region where it's estimated there may be 70 million people who consume bush meat regularly. ( people talking ) ALDA: Karl filmed bush meat shipments arriving on truck after truck. To go into the markets, Karl asked his assistant to wear a camera hidden in a pair of glasses. Even though the laws aren't enforced almost all of this trade is still illegal. That looks pretty small, Joseph. Look into my lens so I can see. ALDA: The urban markets are filled with an enormous variety of bush meat. Practically every animal in the forest can be found-- monkeys, antelope, birds bats, chimps, gorillas, elephant. Bush meat is popular and it brings high prices. ( people talking in local language ) AMMAN: When we're talking urban centers where the demand comes from you have a setting where people pay a premium for this meat and it's not eaten by the poor but by the middle class and the rich. And that's really the aspect which drives the market. ALDA: Bush meat is regarded as much more desirable than farm-raised meat, like pork or beef. For many people, it's a nostalgic link to a past village life that's gone forever. ( woman speaking French ) He bought a piece of, uh, fresh chimp hand which is a desirable piece, for 2,500 CFA He bought a, uh... a kilo of fresh beef, without bone good deal more meat than this, for 1,500 CFA. Smoked chimp hand he bought for 2,500. Smoked chimp arm he bought for 2,500. It's more meat, but it's less desirable meat than the hand. Domestic fresh pork for 1,300. ALDA: Karl realized that the trade he had at first stumbled across and then investigated was nothing less than a catastrophe for African wildlife. Because of the staggering scale it's turned him into a full-time advocate for controls. AMMAN: There's one estimate which states a million metric tons, a billion kilos of game meat consumed in the Congo River basin annually. I mean, that would be a billion-dollar business. There are very few other billion-dollar industries in the whole of Africa. When it come to apes, it's pretty clear-cut that it cannot possibly be sustainable. ALDA: For chimpanzees, with their traditions and complex societies just the disruption of logging would be serious. But the bush meat trade is far more threatening. AMMAN: You might have a huge impact on chimp populations even without hunting but if you then combine it with hunting it's clear-cut that it's unsustainable. So, you know, I don't think we should wait for the scientific data. I think all the indicators are that it's pretty much unsustainable for pretty much every species. And it's an excuse to say we have to have scientific data to prove it. We should deal with the solutions rather than analyzing the problem. ALDA: Karl now has a second orphan chimp rescued when it was a baby. He's set up a sanctuary for both near his house. It's only a gesture, of course, in the face of this trade which could, within ten years, wipe out all chimpanzees living outside small protected areas like Gombe National Park. Reducing the trade is going to take everything from changing the appetite for bush meat-- which Karl wants to attempt-- to international pressure. GOODALL: The whole situation is really, really difficult. And it's going to need, I think, pressure on, um, heads of state in the developed world on the World Bank. Going to need to put pressure on the... the heads of state in these central African countries to help them to enforce their own wildlife laws. And in a country that's torn apart with civil war like the old Zaire and like Congo (Brazzaville) how do you do it? ALDA: For Jane Goodall the bush meat trade is just one of the ways in which we mistreat our closest living relatives. We use chimps for medical research or as pets. We put them in circuses. None of these is acceptable, she says. And for her, that's just the beginning. ALDA: What ought we to know about our cousins that would make us behave more humanely, more intelligently toward them? That their lives do matter. They have a personality. Each one is different. There are all these different life histories. They have minds, they can solve problems. They invent new things. They feel as we feel, as far as we can tell. And so they are chimpanzee beings, as we are human beings. And you can extrapolate from that down into our dogs and our cats, our horses the pigs that we shut up and eat. That we have to learn from the chimps. I like to see it as a chimpanzee reaches towards us over what we saw as an unbridgeable gulf between us and the rest of the animal kingdom and the chimp looks into our eyes and says "Don't you understand that our lives matter, too that we have personalities, and minds, and feelings? " If you look back into those eyes and you reach out and take that hand and say, "Yes, you're right" then they'll turn over their shoulder and say "And what about them? "What about all those other amazing animal beings? Don't they matter, too?

Take a look at these related stories from the Frontiers Archive:

				Number Crunchers Rhesus monkeys and chimpanzees are found to have innate abilities to calculate, using addition, subtraction and even fractions.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: WHAT KIND OF MONKEYS ARE WE GOING TO BE WORKING WITH? Woman: THESE ARE RHESUS. Alda: WE'RE IN PUERTO RICO TO INVESTIGATE THE AMAZING COUNTING SKILLS RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN MONKEYS. I'M WITH PSYCHOLOGIST SUE CAREY AND SHE'S TAKING ME OUT TO A SMALL ISLAND JUST OFFSHORE. CALLED CAYO SANTIAGO IT'S HOME TO ABOUT A THOUSAND RHESUS MONKEYS. THESE MONKEYS HAVE BEEN HERE ISOLATED ON THIS ISLAND SINCE WHEN? THE '30s. THEY WERE BROUGHT OVER, INTERESTINGLY ENOUGH FOR BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH. Alda: SUE'S BACKGROUND IS STUDYING HOW YOUNG CHILDREN THINK BUT LATELY SHE'S BEEN LOOKING FOR THE ROOTS OF HUMAN THINKING IN MONKEYS. SEE THEM PLAYING IN THE WATER? Carey: SHALL WE GO UP THIS WAY? Alda: WE'RE GOING TO CONDUCT A SIMPLE COUNTING EXPERIMENT WITH APPLES AND BOXES-- IF WE CAN FIND A MONKEY THAT WILL PAY ATTENTION. Carey: OKAY, WHAT WE'VE DONE HERE IS WE'VE TRIED TO FIND A MONKEY THAT WAS ALL BY HIMSELF. THERE'S NO OTHER MONKEYS AROUND AS FAR AS WE CAN SEE. THEN WE'RE GOING TO SHOW HIM THAT THE BOXES ARE EMPTY. THEN WE'RE GOING TO KNEEL DOWN AND I'M GOING TO PUT TWO APPLES IN ONE BOX AND LAURIE WILL PUT THREE IN THE OTHER AND THEN WE'LL STEP BACK AND SEE WHICH ONE HE CHOOSES. IF HE CHOOSES THE ONE WITH THREE THEN HE KNOWS THAT THREE IS MORE THAN TWO SIMPLE AS THAT. OKAY. READY? YEAH. Alda: LAURIE SHOWS THAT HER BOX IS EMPTY WHILE THE MONKEY LOOKS ON. SUE MAKES IT CLEAR THAT HER BOX IS EMPTY, TOO. OKAY, DON'T LOOK AT HIM, ANYBODY. Alda: SLOWLY AND DELIBERATELY SUE PLACES TWO CHUNKS OF APPLE IN HER BOX. NEXT, LAURIE PUTS THREE CHUNKS OF APPLE IN HER BOX. READY. OKAY, WALK AWAY. Alda: WHICH BOX WILL THE MONKEY GO TO? Carey: OKAY, NOW YOU SEE WHAT HAPPENED. HE WENT TO THE ONE WITH THREE. I SUPPOSE THAT THIS IS MEANINGFUL IF YOU DO IT MANY TIMES. WE HAVE DONE THIS VERY EXPERIMENT-- THREE VERSUS TWO-- WITH 15 MONKEYS, AND 14 OUT OF THE 15 WENT WITH THREE. HEY, LOOK-- EMPTY. OKAY, YOU HAVE THREE. Alda: TO ASSURE THEIR RESULTS WERE SOLID TRIALS WERE RUN WITH SEVERAL VARIATIONS. Laurie: GOOD, WATCH-- READY? Alda: THEY VARIED WHO PUT THE CHUNKS IN FIRST WHO HAD THE HIGHER NUMBER AND WHO WAS ON THE LEFT OR RIGHT. READY? Alda: REGARDLESS OF THE VARIATIONS THE MONKEYS WENT FOR THE BOX WITH THREE. SO THEY MUST BE COUNTING WHAT GOES INTO EACH BOX AND THEY DO IT AUTOMATICALLY. EACH MONKEY ONLY SEES ONE TRIAL. THAT MONKEY HAS NEVER BEEN IN THIS EXPERIMENT BEFORE. SO, I MEAN, THAT'S EXTREMELY INTERESTING. HE'S SPONTANEOUSLY COUNTING THE APPLES. HOW IS HE GOING TO KNOW THAT ONE OF US IS GOING TO PUT THREE AND ANOTHER IS GOING TO PUT TWO? BUT HE SEES APPLE, HE SPONTANEOUSLY COUNTS HOW MANY TIMES THEY GO IN THERE. Alda: USING A PORTABLE MAGIC STAGE LAURIE AND SUE ARE NOW INVESTIGATING WHETHER THE MONKEYS CAN ALSO DO BASIC ADDITION. THE EXPERIMENT WORKS LIKE THIS: A LIME IS PLACED ON THE STAGE AND A BARRIER PUT DOWN TO BLOCK THE VIEW. AFTER A BRIEF PAUSE, ANOTHER LIME IS ADDED. ONE PLUS ONE IS TWO-- NO MAGIC THERE. THE MONKEY QUICKLY LOSES INTEREST. IT'S VIDEOTAPED TO MEASURE LATER HOW LONG THE MONKEY LOOKED. NOW HERE'S ANOTHER SHOW. IT'S IDENTICAL TO THE FIRST, EXCEPT FOR THE SURPRISE ENDING. WATCH-- READY? Alda: ONE PLUS ONE EQUALS... ONE? Alda: THE MONKEY STARES FOR A LONG TIME MANY SECONDS MORE THAN BEFORE. SUE BELIEVES THIS MEANS THE MONKEY WAS SURPRISED-- THAT IT MUST HAVE KNOWN SOMETHING WAS WRONG. SUCH LOOKING-TIME EXPERIMENTS, AS THEY'RE CALLED WERE ACTUALLY DEVELOPED TO FIGURE OUT WHAT'S GOING ON INSIDE THE MINDS OF HUMAN BABIES. WHEN SHOWN NONMAGICAL EVENTS LIKE THIS ONE THREE-MONTH-OLD BABIES GET BORED RAPIDLY. BUT SHOW THEM AN IMPOSSIBLE OR MAGICAL EVENT LIKE THIS... THE INFANTS STARE AND STARE. THEIR FASCINATION WITH MAGICAL EVENTS SUGGESTS THEY KNOW THE WORLD DOESN'T WORK THIS WAY. SO BASED ON LOOKING TIME, THE MONKEY WAS SURPRISED. HE MUST HAVE ADDED THE SECOND LIME TO THE FIRST AND REALIZED HE WAS SHOWN SOMETHING IMPOSSIBLE. SALLY BOYSEN'S CHIMPANZEES HAVE SHOWN AN ABILITY WITH MATH THAT WOULD DELIGHT A KINDERGARTEN TEACHER. HERE, THE PROBLEM IS THREE PLUS THREE. SEVEN YEARS AGO, FRONTIERS RECORDED THE FIRST-EVER ATTEMPT AT ADDITION BY A CHIMP. HOW MANY? SHOW ME. YEAH, SIX IS THE RIGHT ANSWER. GOOD GIRL, THERE ARE SIX PEACHES OUT THERE. Alda: WATCH WHAT HAPPENED WHEN NUMBERS WERE USED INSTEAD OF PEACHES. HERE'S ANOTHER ONE. Alda: THIS IS SHEEBA, BY THE WAY THE SAME CHIMP WE DID THE MODEL ROOM EXPERIMENT WITH. HOW MANY WAS THAT? CAN YOU PICK? SHOW ME. FOUR! YEAH! Alda: SHEEBA REALLY SEEMED TO UNDERSTAND WHAT NUMBERS WERE ALL ABOUT. PERFECT-- IT WAS FOUR. HOW MANY OF THESE DO I HAVE? TWO BANANAS-- RIGHT, THERE'S TWO BANANAS HERE. Alda: THAT'S NOT ALL SALLY'S CHIMPS UNDERSTOOD ABOUT NUMBERS. AND ONE MORE TIME. AND NOW I HAVE THIS LITTLE WEENSY PIECE. IT'S A FOURTH OF A BANANA, RIGHT. Alda: SALLY DISCOVERED THAT HER ANIMALS COULD EVEN GRASP THE SOPHISTICATED CONCEPT OF FRACTIONS. I'VE GOT ANOTHER FOURTH. THAT'S RIGHT, THERE IT IS. Alda: SO THE OVERALL CONCLUSION IS HUMANS JUST DON'T HAVE A MONOPOLY ON THE WORLD OF NUMBERS. Alda: WE ARE ACCUSTOMED TO THINKING OF OURSELVES AS BEING SO FAR REMOVED FROM THE OTHER ANIMALS IN TASKS LIKE THAT. IT'S SHOCKING TO REALIZE THAT WE'RE MUCH CLOSER COUSINS THAN WE THOUGHT. YEAH, AND FOR YEARS WE'VE THOUGHT ABOUT OURSELVES THAT WAY. EVEN ARISTOTLE SAID, "MAN IS RATIONAL BECAUSE HE COUNTS.

				Thinking About Thinking A primate understands that what it knows might not be the same as what another individual knows, something human children only get by age 3.
		Select text to jump ahead in the clip: WHY AM I PUTTING THIS ON? WELL, WE'RE GOING TO TRY AND TURN YOU INTO A LITTLE BIT OF A SCARIER PERSON. IT'S GOING TO BE PRETTY SCARY TO THE FASHION POLICE WHEN I PUT THIS ON OVER MY SWEATER. WELL, THIS WAY YOU'RE GOING TO LOOK A LITTLE BIT MORE LIKE ONE OF THE VETERINARIANS WHO MIGHT BE COMING IN TO DO, UM... SAY, THE CHIMPS' ANNUAL PHYSICAL. AND THEY REALLY DON'T LOOK FORWARD TO THAT TOO MUCH. Alda: SALLY BOYSEN AND I ARE ABOUT TO PLAY AN ELABORATE MIND GAME WITH SOME CHIMPANZEES. SO NOW YOU'VE GOT THE SCRUB, THE MASK AND THEN WE'RE GOING TO GIVE YOU THE ULTIMATE FRIGHTENING WEAPON. WHICH IS? THE TRANQUILIZING GUN. AND, LOOK, IT MATCHES YOUR SCRUB. THAT'S GOOD, I LIKE TO BE ACCESSORIZED. ( laughing ): THERE YOU GO. OKAY, NOW, AS WE COME OUT, DARYL'S NOT SURE. HE'S VERY UPSET, YOU SEE? ( chimp screaming ) Alda: A CHIMP NAMED DARYL IS BEING HELD BRIEFLY IN THE TRANSFER CORRIDOR BETWEEN CAGES. HE THINKS I'VE COME FOR HIM. WE'RE GOING TO HIDE. COME ON IN HERE, OVER BY THAT WALL. Alda: WE ACTUALLY WANT DARYL TO THINK I'M AFTER ANOTHER CHIMP NAMED KERMIT, WHO'S STILL INDOORS AND THEREFORE DOESN'T KNOW THE VET'S HERE. Boysen: WE'VE GOT TO LET HIM CALM DOWN A LITTLE SO THAT HE'S SURE THAT IT'S NOT GOING TO BE HIM. HE'S GOT TO GET USED TO THIS BECAUSE WE WANT HIM TO CALM DOWN ENOUGH SO THAT HE'S NOT DISTRESSED. Alda: WE'RE GOING TO OBSERVE HOW DARYL REACTS WHEN KERMIT'S LET OUT TO SEE IF DARYL WARNS HIS FRIEND THAT I'M HERE. DARYL? DARYL? IT'S ALL RIGHT. COME HERE, IT'S ALL RIGHT. DARYL... DARYL! YOU'RE OKAY. Alda: THE BIG QUESTION WE'RE ASKING IS WHETHER CHIMPS ARE AWARE OF WHAT OTHER CHIMPS KNOW OR DON'T KNOW. HAVING SUCH AN AWARENESS WOULD MEAN AN ANIMAL THINKS ABOUT THINKING-- SOMETHING MOST SCIENTISTS BELIEVE ONLY HUMANS CAN DO. OKAY, SO WE'RE GOING TO KIND OF PRETEND, LIKE, RIGHT HERE AND YOU WANT TO KIND OF CROUCH A LITTLE AS THOUGH YOU'RE GOING TO GET THIS GUY NEXT DOOR. Alda: AS THE DOOR TO KERMIT'S CAGE IS OPENED, DARYL CRIES OUT AND KERMIT STOPS DEAD IN HIS TRACKS. ( screeching ) MINUTES LATER, WE RUN THE EXPERIMENT AGAIN. THIS TIME KERMIT IS ALREADY OUTSIDE AND CAN SEE FOR HIMSELF THAT I'M COMING TO GET HIM. ( screeching ) HE'S CLEARLY UPSET. BUT NOW, UP ABOVE, DARYL IS SILENT-- A BIG DIFFERENCE FROM BEFORE. Alda: HE DOESN'T LET OUT A CALL THEN. HE DOESN'T HAVE TO, BECAUSE THEY BOTH KNOW AND IN THIS CASE, IT'S EVERY MAN FOR HIMSELF. THEY'RE BOTH... THEY BOTH HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SITUATION SO IT'S NOT NECESSARY. AND IF YOU WILL, MAYBE HE'S AWARE THAT KERMIT ALREADY KNOWS, SO I DON'T HAVE TO TELL HIM ANYTHING. YOU KNOW, WHEN YOU PUT IT IN HIGH-CLASS TERMS LIKE THAT-- THAT HE'S AWARE OF THE STATE OF MIND OF THE OTHER CHIMP... WE DON'T KNOW. I MEAN, IT REALLY SOUNDS EXTRAORDINARY. IT SOUNDS LIKE BIG NEWS. AND I CAN IMAGINE PEOPLE BEING RELUCTANT TO TAKE THAT WITHOUT A LOT OF TESTING, BECAUSE IT MEANS THAT THEY'RE MORE LIKE US THAN WE THOUGHT THEY WERE. I THINK THE CHIMPS ARE CAPABLE OF SHOWING US MUCH MORE AND OUR LIMITATIONS ARE OUR OWN INADEQUACIES AS HUMANS TO DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT THAT WILL SHOW THAT. KERMIT! ( imitating panting ) Alda: RIGHT AFTER OUR SHORT EXPERIMENT WE LET DARYL AND KERMIT KNOW THAT WE WERE ONLY PLAYING. ( howling ) SEE? YEAH, SO YOU GOT THE RESPONSE AND NOW HE WANTS TO PLAY. Alda: IN THE FUTURE, SALLY WANTS TO FIND OUT WHEN CHIMPS DEVELOP AN AWARENESS OF THE MIND. ( Alda pants, chimps howl ) WE'RE GOING TO HAVE A SNACK NOW. WHAT HAVE YOU GOT IN YOUR HANDS? Alda: HUMANS DON'T BECOME AWARE OF WHAT'S GOING ON IN THE MIND UNTIL AROUND AGE THREE AS THIS DEMONSTRATION ILLUSTRATES WITH 2½-YEAR-OLD JACOB AND A JUICE BOX. WHAT'S IN THE BOX? JUICE. OH! LOOK AT THAT. WHAT ARE THEY? ROPES. Alda: JACOB CALLS THE RIBBONS "ROPES" WHICH IS FINE, BECAUSE IT'S THE NEXT QUESTION THAT COUNTS. WHAT DID YOU THINK WAS INSIDE THE BOX BEFORE I TURNED IT OVER? ROPES. ROPES! Alda: JACOB IS UNAWARE THAT JUST SECONDS AGO, HE WAS SURE IT WAS JUICE. AND, UNLIKE THE CHIMP DARYL, JACOB ALSO BELIEVES THAT IF HE KNOWS SOMETHING, SO WILL EVERYONE ELSE. JESSE HASN'T SEEN INSIDE THIS BOX. WHAT WOULD JESSE THINK IS INSIDE BEFORE I TURN IT OVER? ROPES. Alda: SO IT SEEMS THAT ADULT CHIMPS CAN THINK MORE ABOUT THE MIND THAN YOUNG HUMANS, AND BASED ON OUR NEXT EXPERIMENT SO MIGHT TAMARIN MONKEYS. OKAY, SO HERE'S HOW IT RUNS. A TAMARIN WILL BE SITTING IN THAT BOX OVER THERE AND AN EXPERIMENTER WILL BE STANDING OVER HERE. AN ACTOR WILL COME IN, EATING AN APPLE. THAT'S ME? THAT'S YOU. EATING AN APPLE. I CAN DO THAT. YOU CAN DO THAT. I ACTUALLY GOT A LOT OF GOOD REVIEWS FOR EATING APPLES. OKAY, I WANT TO SEE THE C. V. SO YOU COME IN, EATING SOME APPLE AND THEN YOU GIVE THE TAMARIN A LITTLE PIECE. Alda: AS THE PLAY DEVELOPS, WE'LL BE CLOSELY WATCHING THE REACTIONS OF OUR AUDIENCE-- THE TAMARIN-- TO SEE IF HE'S SURPRISED. AND I'LL SAY "OKAY. " I'LL SEE YOU OPENING NIGHT. Alda: THE PLAY OPENS WHILE I'M OFFSTAGE. MARC SHOWS THE TAMARIN THAT BOTH OF THE BOXES ARE EMPTY. AND NOW IT'S TIME FOR MY ENTRANCE. HOWDY, BUB. MMM, GOOD. GOOD APPLE. WANT SOME? Alda: RIGHT AWAY, MY AUDIENCE IS HOOKED. I'M GOING TO PUT THIS AWAY IN HERE. GO RIGHT IN THERE. COVER IT UP. SEE YOU LATER. Alda: NOW, WHILE I'M OFFSTAGE AGAIN MARC DOES A LITTLE SWITCHEROO WITH THE APPLE. THIS IS ONE OF THOSE LOOKING-TIME EXPERIMENTS SO THE ANIMAL'S SURPRISE WILL BE GAUGED BY HOW LONG IT LOOKS. HMM, WHERE'S THAT APPLE? I'D SURE LIKE SOME MORE OF THAT APPLE. I THINK I'LL GO IN HERE. Alda: WHEN I LOOK IN THE EMPTY BOX, THE TAMARIN PAYS NO ATTENTION. THERE'S NO SURPRISE IN WHAT I'VE DONE. Alda: THE TAMARIN SAW ME LEAVE THE ROOM AFTER PUTTING IT IN THIS BOX. IF IT'S A REALLY SMART TAMARIN IT WOULD EXPECT ME TO COME BACK AND LOOK FOR IT IN THIS BOX. PRECISELY. IF THE TAMARIN ONLY HAS A SENSE OF WHAT HE OR SHE BELIEVES OR KNOWS THEN THEY'LL EXPECT ME TO LOOK WHERE THEY KNOW THE APPLE IS. Alda: SO LET'S TRY THAT NOW. HOWDY, BUB. MMM... GOOD APPLE. YOU WANT SOME? I'M GOING TO PUT IT IN HERE. AND I GO. Alda: ONCE AGAIN, MARC SWITCHES THE APPLE OVER. BUT THIS TIME WHEN I COME BACK, I DO SOMETHING SURPRISING. MMM... SURE COULD USE ANOTHER BITE OF THAT APPLE. Alda: I SHOULDN'T KNOW THIS AND THE TAMARIN STARES THREE TIMES LONGER THAN BEFORE. NOW, THAT WAS A BIG REACTION. HE STOOD UP. HOW DO YOU KNOW THEY'RE NOT LOOKING LONGER BECAUSE THEIR MIND WANDERS AT THAT MOMENT, OR SOMETHING? OR THERE'S A NOISE OVER THERE OR SOMETHING LIKE THAT? WHAT WE TRY TO DO IS TEST A NUMBER OF ANIMALS IN EXACTLY THE SAME CONDITIONS. AND SO WHAT WE'RE HOPING FOR IS CONVERGENCE; THAT ALL THE ANIMALS WILL SHOW VERY SIMILAR PATTERNS GIVEN THE MANIPULATIONS WE DO. SO I GUESS I'LL PUT THIS APPLE... IN THE BOX... AND COVER IT UP. Alda: NOW A THIRD VARIATION OF THE SHOW. THIS TIME, I STAY IN MY SEAT WHILE MARC SWITCHES THE APPLE. SO IF THE TAMARIN'S THINKING ABOUT WHAT I'M THINKING IT SHOULD KNOW I KNOW THE APPLE HAS BEEN MOVED. SURE WOULD LIKE SOME APPLE. Alda: SURE ENOUGH, WHEN I REACH INTO THE SECOND BOX THE TAMARIN ISN'T SURPRISED. HE SEEMS TO BE THINKING ABOUT WHAT I OUGHT TO KNOW. HERE'S THE LAST VARIATION. MMM... OKAY, PUTTING THIS IN HERE. Alda: ONCE AGAIN, I WITNESS MARC SWITCHING THE APPLE. BUT THIS TIME, WHEN I GO BACK FOR ANOTHER BITE MY ACTION MAKES NO SENSE, AS IF I DIDN'T KNOW WHAT MARC HAD DONE RIGHT BEFORE MY VERY EYES. WELL, OKAY. HELLO. HERE I GO. Alda: AND THE TAMARIN STARES. IT'S A SOLID RESULT. IN EVERY CASE, THIS LITTLE ANIMAL MUST BE THINKING ABOUT WHAT'S IN MY HEAD. HOW DIFFERENT ARE WE FROM THESE OTHER ANIMALS? ARE WE JUST VASTLY, RADICALLY DIFFERENT? ARE WE A TOTAL INNOVATION IN EVOLUTION? OR DOES THIS SHOW CONNECTIONS, THREADS THAT GO BACK? NO ANIMAL IS DOING CALCULUS. NO ANIMAL IS WRITING SHAKESPEARE, AND SO FORTH. THOSE ARE VAST DIFFERENCES. BUT WHAT I THINK SEEMS TO BE REVEALING ITSELF NOW, OVER TIME IS THAT, AT THE CORE, WE SHARE MANY OF THE SAME PRINCIPLES OF THOUGHT AND KNOWING. Alda: THE RESEARCH WE'VE SEEN IN THIS PROGRAM IS BRINGING NOTHING LESS THAN A REVOLUTION TO OUR VIEW OF ANIMAL MINDS. EXQUISITELY DESIGNED EXPERIMENTS ARE TEASING OUT THE FACT THAT ANIMALS DO THINK. IN THEIR OWN WAY, THEY ARE EINSTEINS. COME VISIT US ONLINE. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN FRONTIERS CAN BE FOUND ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB AT THE ADDRESS ON YOUR SCREEN.