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Did a collision with a giant asteroid or comet change the shape of life on Earth forever?

It's widely agreed that such an object -- 10 kilometers across -- struck just off the coast of the Yucatan peninsula 65 million years ago.

According to scientists who maintain that dinosaur extinction came quickly, the impact must have spelled the cataclysmic end.

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For months, scientists conclude, dense clouds of dust blocked the sun's rays, darkening and chilling the Earth to deadly levels for most plants and, in turn, many animals. Then, when the dust finally settled, greenhouse gases created by the impact caused temperatures to skyrocket above pre-impact levels.

In just a few years, according to this hypothesis, these frigid and sweltering climatic extremes caused the extinction of not just the dinosaurs but up to 70 percent of all plants and animals living at the time.

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Did dinosaurs lose their dominance suddenly or gradually? Some scientists think the answer lies locked within the remnants of long-dormant volcanoes.

Massive beds of ancient lava found around the world depict an Earth 65 to 70 million years ago where volcanic eruptions were commonplace.

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According to the volcanism hypothesis, this global-scale volcanic activity spewed so much gas, ash, and dust into the atmosphere that it kept sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface. Temperature and plant production plummeted, and dinosaurs and many other organisms that were poorly adapted to the harsh conditions perished.

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Extinction implies that the species that perish are poorly adapted to a changing set of conditions.

Faced with an evolving group of competing organisms -- the mammals -- perhaps dinosaurs were driven to extinction by competition.

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Packs of small mammals would have competed with dinosaurs for food. And carnivorous mammals would have preyed on dinosaur eggs.

Not only did mammals likely compete with dinosaurs for resources, many species survived the end-Cretaceous extinction and subsequently came to dominate the Earth.

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It's difficult to imagine a process more gradual than continental drift. But some scientists say that, slow or not, this repositioning of the worlds landmasses was disastrous for dinosaurs.

As continents heaved upward, pushed by the movement of tectonic plates, ocean currents were redirected and global sea levels fell. The Interior Seaway, for example, which once divided North America in half, simply drained away as the Colorado Plateau rose thousands of feet.

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According to this hypothesis, climates in many parts of the world became drier and cooler. The resulting ecosystems produced less food than the environments in which dinosaurs evolved and were able to sustain them.

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loading evidence

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Scientists have discovered levels of iridium 30 times greater than average in the Cretaceous/Tertiary (KT) boundary, the layer of sedimentary rock laid down at the time of the dinosaur extinction.

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Ranging in size from large chunks to tiny beads, these pieces of melted granite are common at or near the Cretaceous/Tertiary (KT) boundary, the geological layer that defines the dinosaur extinction.

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Some scientists maintain that the fracture pattern in these quartz crystals could only have been caused by a massive asteroid or comet impact. The pattern is prevalent in quartz found at or near the Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) boundary, the geological layer deposited at the time of the extinction.

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Some paleontologists see evidence in the fossil

record that dinosaurs were doing quite well prior to the end of the Cretaceous -- that they were in no way declining in abundance when the impact occurred.

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Scientists have concluded that the impact that created this crater occurred 65 million years ago. The date corresponds perfectly to the date of the dinosaur extinction.

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Some scientists think the presence of high concentrations of iridium at the geological layer associated with the dinosaur extinction could be the result of extremely large-scale volcanic activity.

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Although geologists generally acknowledge that a comet or asteroid impact would cause these fractures, some scientists conclude that they could also be the result of volcanic eruptions.

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A gradual decline in the number of dinosaur species would likely mirror an equally gradual process like climate change caused by global volcanism.

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Lava flows like those of the Deccan region of India can be dated. They provide evidence of a rash of volcanic activity for at least 500,000 years leading up to the extinction of the dinosaurs.

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While mammals certainly prospered on the heels of the dinosaur extinction, it is unclear whether mammals and dinosaurs experienced little competition or if they regularly challenged each other for limited resources.

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According to some scientists, fossil evidence clearly shows a decline in the number of dinosaur species for several million years leading up to the end of the Cretaceous.

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According to many scientists, continental drift and ocean regression would have caused continents to become drier, cooler, and less hospitable to dinosaur life than they had been previously.

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It is one of the greatest puzzles in paleontology.

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For more than 150 million years, dinosaurs dominated the Earth. They were so successful that other animal groups -- mammals included -- had little chance of playing anything more than secondary roles.

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Then, 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs vanished from the world forever.

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Did they meet a quick and catastrophic end, or did they fade away gradually?

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to what killed the dinosaurs, scientists have looked beyond fossils. Geological evidence also holds clues and has contributed to many hypotheses: working explanations of how dinosaurs may have become extinct.

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In the search for answers

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The extinction mystery is far from a simple "whodunit." The same piece of evidence is sometimes subject to multiple interpretations. And, as yet, there is no obvious "smoking gun," no piece of evidence that strongly supports only one hypothesis while disproving all others.

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So, what do we know about dinosaur extinction, and how do we know it?

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Most scientists agree that an asteroid or comet put a dramatic exclamation point at the end of the Cretaceous period. It is also widely acknowledged that continents shifted, sea levels dropped, and volcanoes erupted across Earth's surface. Most paleontologists would even grant that mammals probably competed to some extent with dinosaurs.

With all of these pieces to the puzzle in hand, the question remains, What role did these phenomena play in the extinction of the dinosaurs?

While the answer to this question remains a mystery, the question itself is far more refined than the one scientists were asking just a few decades ago. We're getting closer to knowing what killed the dinosaurs.

And so, for now, we can be satisfied maintaining several viable hypotheses. It's likely that one of them -- or all of them in combination

-- holds the answer. In time, with more evidence, we will undoubtedly get closer to knowing for sure.

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