Kilauea, on Hawaii’s Big Island, is the world’s most active volcano.  Its latest eruption began in 1983 and it hasn’t stopped since.  Since that time it has created 544 acres of new land and has consumed 200 homes. But as we watch nature’s own fireworks display and witness the devastation wrought by flowing lava, we’ve also been able to observe a process that’s central to life on these islands.  The most spectacular moment of creation is when lava pours into the ocean creating new land, and it is here that filmmaker Paul Atkins finds himself getting a shot few have ever filmed — the cataclysmic meeting of 2,000-degree lava and 75-degree ocean water — a sight to behold. Buy the DVD. This film premiered March 29, 2008.

Featured in Kilauea: Mountain of Fire, Milton Garces records infrasound in order to better understand what’s happening in Kilauea’s underground lava tubes. NATURE spoke with him in March 2009.

Q: Tell us a bit about ISLA, the Infrasound Laboratory, and its mission.

A: We are located on the western tip of the Big Island of Hawaii. The lab’s main function is to operate listening stations as part of the International Monitoring System of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. Beyond that we conduct research on volcanoes, ocean waves, storms, and have recently deployed a hydroacoustic station.

Can you give a brief description of what causes infrasonic tremor and where the infrasound is physically emitting from?

Numerous sources at Kilauea could be producing the tremor. As the magma rises to the surface, pressurized gas comes out of the magma. The release of this gas causes pressure fluctuations, or infrasound. Anywhere pressurized gas is being released is a possible source of infrasound. Halemaumau is currently the loudest source of infrasonic tremor at Kilauea. Gas bubbles, both large and small, are involved in producing the sound at Kilauea. They can even excite large underground cavities into resonance, just like blowing over a beverage bottle or ringing a bell.

How long have you been listening to Kilauea?

ISLA’s first deployment was in 2002. Since then we have had continuous recordings using numerous stations since 2006.

Has anyone else done this before—recorded the infrasounds of lava flow?

Volcano infrasound research actually began with the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. However, the past 20 years has seen the majority of volcano infrasound studies. Numerous volcanoes all over the world have been found to produce a significant amount of infrasound. Kilauea, however, has its own unique voice and we have captured a wide variety of signals from it, from tremor, explosions, lava skylights, fissure eruptions, and bench collapses.

Humans can’t hear the sounds coming from the volcano because they are at such a low frequency, but are there any organisms you know of that can detect Kilauea’s infrasound waves?

I know many animals communicate and hear infrasound (such as elephants), but am not aware of any organisms on Hawaii that would be able to hear infrasound from Kilauea. With that said, the higher frequency audible sounds would be heard by many.

Milton Garces listens to infrasonic recordings on a computer

What do you think the future applications of volcanic infrasound research may be?

I think the continued integration of infrasound with other technologies (such as seismic and satellite observations) will greatly help us understand and monitor volcanoes in the future. For example, we have a project in Ecuador right now where we are using infrasound and satellite observations to identify ash-rich volcanic eruptions, in hopes of providing early warning to aircraft operations in the region.

Can infrasound research be used to predict future eruptions?

Rather than focus on prediction, infrasound can tell us what is going on at the volcano right now and whether an eruption is occurring at that moment. Volcanoes are such complex systems that prediction is difficult. Gaining a more complete understanding of what is happening right now and what has happened before probably gives us the best chance for mitigating hazards.

What was your process of setting the microphones and what problems if any did you encounter as you did so?

First we had to select a good location — this is key to obtain good infrasound recordings. The dense jungle forest around Kilauea provides a great location as it shelters us from the wind. Then we needed to find a way to send our data back to our lab in Kona in real-time. From there the installation of the microphones is fairly simple, as we have a set design for our portable deployments. Luckily we have had no major equipment or data problems. Part of this can be attributed to the fact that we are able to record from long distances. Placing microphones next to active volcanoes often increases the likelihood of them being destroyed by the volcano, which is a main reason why we prefer to record from five to ten miles away.

What can infrasound measurements tell us that seismic data cannot?

Seismic data can tell us about magma moving underground, while infrasound is produced when there is pressure released at the surface. This way infrasound can help distinguish between subsurface and surface activity. Lots of seismic activity does not necessarily translate to lava or gas at the surface, but infrasound does. Also we often put out an array of microphones, kind of like an antenna, to determine what direction the sound is coming from.

Does Pele ever stop chanting? Will she ever?

Pele takes short breaks now and again, but she has remained active. Even if she were to take a break at Kilauea, it is likely that she would begin again in the relatively short future. Also, don’t forget Mauna Loa volcano is right next to Kilauea and has erupted numerous times in recent history, and when it does, we will be ready to record its unique voice.

AUDIO

Listen to the recordings (will open in a new browser window):

• Spattering Vent at Pu’u O’o in June 2007
• Collapse and Shutdown of Pu’u O’o in June 2007
• Opening of the Halemaumau Gas Vent in March 2008

Go to the ISLA Web site for more information.

Ejecting fire, molten rock, giant boulders and poisonous gases, the volcano can be a hazard for researchers, homeowners, plants and animals, but it doesn’t just leave destruction in its wake. Twists and turns in the lava’s flow leave some patches of original ecosystems, called kipukas, undisturbed. These oases of life provide a haven to many rare creatures — including the Hawaiian state bird, the Nene — but remain in constant danger from the volcano and from invasive species. Below the surface, inactive lava tubes provide homes for many unique species of darkness-loving creatures called troglobites.

At the end of its journey, the lava meets the ocean. Braving an extremely hot sea, filmmakers record the birth of new land and the incredible phenomenon of pillow lava – a bizarre and truly magical sight to behold.

Violent and beautiful, destructive and creative, Kilauea: Mountain of Fire explores the incredible power of the volcano and the challenges of life in its shadow.

Kilauea: Mountain of Fire premieres Sunday, March 29 on PBS.

The Drakensberg mountain range extends more than 600 miles across Southern Africa.  It encompasses massive sandstone buttresses, grass-covered plateaus, and cathedral-like rock towers that have earned these mountains their Zulu name, uKhahlamba, “barrier of spears.”  In its alpine pastures, dangerous thunderstorms can gather in a matter of moments. Not far away, the Tugela Falls plummets more than 3,100 feet into a sparkling rainbow of water vapor. The mountains’ treachery is paired with stunning natural beauty. But how exactly did these extraordinary mountains get here?

The story begins about three billion years ago, when this landmass was part of a supercontinent known as Gondwanaland. At that time, scientists believe a massive lake covered the granite foundation on which the mountains now stand.  Over the course of millions of years, runoff carried sand and mud into the lake, where it settled into sedimentary layers that hardened under the compacting weight. This process carried on until several hundred million years ago.  The youngest of these sedimentary layers now lies exposed in the cliffs at the base of the Drakensberg range.

Tugela Falls, seen through a rock cleft

Then, around 160 million years ago, immense pressure deep within the Earth caused Gondwanaland to begin to split apart. The slowly drifting tectonic plates would eventually form the continents of today.  In this period of great change, vast lava flows poured out through fractures in the Earth’s crust.  Sometimes, these flows hardened into layers of basalt more than 150 feet deep. Over about 20 million years, the basalt deposits grew to be nearly a mile thick over the sandstone deposits below.

When the lava flows stopped, some 140 million years ago,  the process of building this extraordinary mountain range was halted — and a slow process of wearing away began. Along the escarpment, erosion often follows fracture planes that form deep within the rock. As the rocks crumble along these planes, broad cliff faces form — sometimes extending in a straight line for many miles.   Higher still, the layers of hard basalt have long since been whittled down by time and the elements. Blocks and slabs were shorn away, then pulverized over centuries of weathering or were swallowed by the Drakensberg’s deep ravines.  Now, only towering basalt peaks remain, a chain of sentinels keeping watch over the landscape.  The debris from this long process has been churned into a black soil that supports the grasses that cover the slopes below.

With its incredible geologic history, breathtaking landscapes, and wealth of San rock art, the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park was named a World Heritage site by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization in 2000.  The range now plays host to tourists who travel here to enjoy the unique vistas, rugged trails, and challenging rock climbing the Drakensberg affords.  From every vantage point, the “dragon mountains” bear the evidence of the powerful forces that have shaped them through the ages.

Photos © AWF

Have questions for Kevin? Submit them here.

Excerpts from the NATURE episode “Kilauea: Mountain of Fire”

Downloadable QuickTime versions of the video segments:
(Note: To download a video, right click on the video title and click “Save Link As…’ or “Save Target As…”. On a Mac, press the CTRL key and simultaneously click the mouse, then save the link.)

Video Clips

1) Volcanic Views

Describes many aspects of volcanic activity.

2) Lava Landscapes

How volcanic activity affects the surrounding land.

3) Stormy Seas

What happens when lava flows meet the ocean.

(Click here for a printer friendly version of this lesson.)

LESSON TITLE: Vibrant Volcanoes

GRADE LEVEL: 2 – 4

TOPIC/SUBJECT MATTER: Earth Science

TIME ALLOTMENT: 1-2 class periods

OVERVIEW:

This lesson will introduce elementary students to the fiery and explosive nature of volcanoes, using segments from the NATURE film, “Kilauea: Mountain of Fire.” Students will get to know different features of volcanoes and volcanic activity: what volcanoes are like, where they are found, how and why they erupt, and what happens after an eruption. Students will begin by learning key terms about the earth’s structure and plate tectonics, and followed by a hands-on demonstration of plate tectonics. Students will then view video clips to provide an overview of volcanic activity and the effects on the surrounding landscape. As a culminating activity, students will explore the locations of volcanoes around the world.

MEDIA RESOURCES:

NATURE: Kilauea: Mountain of Fire, selected segments

Video Clips

1) Volcanic Views

2) Lava Landscapes

3) Steamy Seas

Access the streaming and downloadable video segments for this lesson at the Video Segments Page.

Web sites

National Geographic Decade Volcanoes

This map highlights sixteen volcanoes that have been designated as Decade Volcanoes, due to both their potential activity and proximity to populated areas.  There are photos of each volcano on the map, as well as information and statistics about its activity.

WorldAtlas Ring of Fire

This map shows the series of volcanoes circling the Pacific Ocean that are known as the “Ring of Fire.”  More than half of the world’s active volcanoes are in this region, which coincides with the edges of tectonic plates.

Volcano Cross-Section

This image shows the basic components of a volcano.

Standards:

National Science Education Standards, Grades K – 4

http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4962

Content Standard B:

PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS AND MATERIALS

• Materials can exist in different states-solid, liquid, and gas. Some common materials, such as water, can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling.

LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRICITY, AND MAGNETISM

• Heat can be produced in many ways, such as burning, rubbing, or mixing one substance with another. Heat can move from one object to another by conduction.

Content Standard D

PROPERTIES OF EARTH MATERIALS

• Earth materials are solid rocks and soils, water, and the gases of the atmosphere. The varied materials have different physical and chemical properties, which make them useful in different ways, for example, as building materials, as sources of fuel, or for growing the plants we use as food. Earth materials provide many of the resources that humans use.

CHANGES IN THE EARTH AND SKY

• The surface of the earth changes. Some changes are due to slow processes, such as erosion and weathering, and some changes are due to rapid processes, such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes.

Content Standard F

CHANGES IN ENVIRONMENTS

• Environments are the space, conditions, and factors that affect an individual’s and a population’s ability to survive and their quality of life.
• Changes in environments can be natural or influenced by humans. Some changes are good, some are bad, and some are neither good nor bad. Pollution is a change in the environment that can influence the health, survival, or activities of organisms, including humans.
• Some environmental changes occur slowly, and others occur rapidly. Students should understand the different consequences of changing environments in small increments over long periods as compared with changing environments in large increments over short periods.

MATERIALS

For each student:

• Volcanic Vocabulary Student Organizer (PDF) (RTF)
• Lava Landscapes Student Organizer (PDF) (RTF)

For each group of 3-4 students:

• Medium-cooked egg (boiled for 5 – 8 minutes, depending on the size of the egg)
• Paper towels

For the class:

• Volcanic Vocabulary Terms and Definitions Answer Key (PDF) (RTF)
• Lava Landscapes Student Organizer Answer Key (PDF) (RTF)
• World Map
• Computer with internet access
• Chart paper, chalkboard, or whiteboard
• Raw egg (optional)
• Push pins or small sticky notes

OBJECTIVES

Students will be able to:

• Recognize key characteristics of volcanoes and volcanic eruptions
• Define vocabulary terms relating to volcanoes and volcanic activity
• Understand how volcanic eruptions change the Earth’s surface
• Identify locations of volcanoes around the world

PREP FOR THE TEACHERS

Prior to teaching this lesson, you will need to:

Preview all of the video segments and Web sites used in the lesson.

Download the video clips used in the lesson to your classroom computer, or prepare to watch them using your classroom’s Internet connection.

Make copies of the student organizers for each student in the class.

Bookmark the Web sites used in the lesson on each computer in your classroom. Using a social bookmarking tool such as del.icio.us or diigo (or an online bookmarking utility such as portaportal) will allow you to organize all the links in a central location.

Prepare chart paper or chalkboard/whiteboard by writing the vocabulary terms from the Introductory Activity: Crust, Mantle, Magma, Lava, Plates.  Leave enough room to write the definitions as you cover them in the lesson.

Prepare medium-cooked eggs for the Introductory Activity.  These eggs should be boiled for approximately 5 – 8 minutes, depending on the size of the eggs, and should be thoroughly cooled before distributing to students.

Proceed to ACTIVITIES.

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NATURE’s 27th season premieres October 26 and promises to be one of the series’ most exciting, featuring such locations as the Arctic wilderness, the Drakensberg mountain range in southern Africa, and the wondrous Victoria Falls on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe. NATURE will also feature what’s in our own “backyard” with an in-depth look at the American bald eagle, as well as a new chapter in the chronicle of the Rockies’ most famous stallion: Cloud. To tantalize your appetite, here’s a sneak peak at three upcoming shows.

Beautifully photographed, White Falcon, White Wolf takes place on the Canadian Arctic’s otherworldly Ellesmere Island, and features an intimate view of the struggles of two families — a pack of white wolves and a family of rare gyrfalcons.

In The Wolf That Changed America, NATURE takes a decidedly different approach by using historical recreations to tell the story of one of America’s earliest conservationists, Ernest Thompson Seton, and his obsession with Lobo — the wolf that changed his life.

Finally, sizzling up the screen is Kilauea: Playing With Fire. Emmy Award-winning cameraman Paul Atkins boldly goes where few would dare — into waters as toasty as 100 degrees Fahrenheit to film lava flows and explosions from Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano. Caution — this footage is hot!

Here is the full schedule of new episodes coming to NATURE this fall:

• October 26: White Falcon, White Wolf
• November 9: Clever Monkeys
• November 16: American Eagle
• November 23: The Wolf That Changed America