National Parks Poster by J. Hirt for WPA, Library of Congress

National Parks: In 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Act that established Yellowstone as the nation’s first national park. Sequoia and Yosemite followed, both designated as national parks in the year 1890. In 1916, the Organic Act led to the creation of the National Park Service, a bureau of the Department of the Interior, to protect all designated national park land. The fundamental purpose of National Park Service is “to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.”  Hunting, commercial fishing, livestock grazing, mining and logging are all strictly prohibited on national park land.  Today, a total of 84.9 million acres has been designated national park land, approximately 3.6% of all land in the United States. Of the 84.9 million acres in the National Park Service, 55 million acres are located in Alaska.

A few of the 58 National Parks in the United States:
Arcadia, Badlands, Big Bend, Carlsbad Caverns, Crater Lake, Death Valley, Denali, Everglades, Glacier, Grand Canyon, Grand Teton, Great Basin, Hot Springs, Joshua Tree, Katmai, Mammoth Cave, Mesa Verde, Mount Rainier, Olympic, Petrified Forest, Redwood, Sequoia, Shenandoah, Yellowstone, Yosemite, Zion

National Forests: In 1891, the Forest Reserve Act allowed the president to designate public land reserves. Fourteen years later, the Transfer Act placed these reserves, which were renamed national forests, under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture. The U.S. Forest Service was created within the department specifically to regulate and manage these lands. Similar to national parks, land preservation is one of the primary functions of national forests. However, unlike national parks, these forests and grasslands are open to commercial activities like logging, livestock, as well as recreational activities like camping, hunting, and fishing. Currently, 193 million acres of land is designated national forests, located in 42 states. The first Chief of the Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot, once stated that National Forest land is managed “to provide the greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people in the long run.”

U.S. Wildernesses: Wilderness areas were established in response to heightened concern about pollution in the 1950s and 1960s. The Wilderness Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. The Act gave a legal definition of the term wilderness:

“A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.”

The passage of the Act established the National Wilderness Preservation System (NWPS) to protect the then 9 million acres of federal land officially recognized as U.S. wilderness. Wilderness areas are parts of national parks, wildlife refuges, national forests, and the public domain.  Today, there are 107.5 million acres of wilderness spanning 44 states and Puerto Rico, accounting for 4.82% of the United States. About half of that total is in the state of Alaska. The largest contiguous U.S. wilderness area is the Noatak and Gates of the Arctic Wilderness in Alaska at close to 13 million acres. Broken up by a series of roads into 35 small wilderness areas, Death Valley Wilderness is technically the largest wilderness area outside Alaska. However, at close to 2.4 million acres, Idaho’s Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness is the largest, roadless protected wilderness area in the lower 48.

Wilderness areas are managed by four federal land management agencies: the National Park Service, the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Bureau of Land Management. Unlike national parks, wilderness areas allow regulated hunting. And although wilderness areas prohibit logging, mining, and motorized vehicles, some resource extraction and livestock grazing persists in areas where those activities occurred prior to its wilderness status.

To be eligible for wilderness designation, an area must be at least 5,000 acres large or a roadless island; appear natural with unnoticeable human presence; provide space for recreational activities and solitude; and contain features that are deemed ecologically, scientifically, or historically significant.

A grizzly in his prime is the undisputed master, able to take down prey as easily as he is able to dominate the fresh kills of other predators. The wolves of Yellowstone must use their numbers to their advantage, organizing to take down their prey and defend the spoils of their hunts from the bears. Together, a strong pack of wolves can challenge a solitary grizzly, and defeat it. As these two fierce competitors test their strategies for survival against each other, an entire food chain of scavengers survive in their wake. Crafty coyotes and cunning crows take advantage of the predators’ feuds to make the most of any felled feast.

It’s a test of skills and wills in the often harsh environment of Yellowstone as two of the continent’s greatest hunters take each other’s measure. Now, join NATURE and discover who will triumph in Clash: Encounters of Bears and Wolves.

In point of fact, not very much is known about John Colter, a man who has nevertheless attained a certain legendary status among figures of the American West. Like all legends, his is an account of the past in which the bias of good storytelling has superseded most notions of historical accuracy.

Perhaps the most cherished aspect of Colter’s story is this: in the winter of 1808, he ventured, alone, into the territory now known as Yellowstone National Park, where he first encountered the area’s incredible geothermal activity: hot springs, bubbling mud pots, tremendous exploding geysers. When he returned, no one believed his fantastic tale of rupturing sulfurous earth — and so for years this region was derisively known among trappers as Colter’s Hell. The truth, however, is that while there was a place the trappers called Colter’s Hell, it was some fifty miles outside of Yellowstone Park, just west of present-day Cody, Wyoming, an area of somewhat less spectacular geothermic activity. The mix-up can be traced to a confusing passage in the book Yellowstone National Park, written in 1895 by Hiram M. Chittenden. Although Chittenden later amended this passage, the myth was hard to dispel. Later, it was further distorted by Stallo Vinton, an early Colter biographer and editor of the 1935 edition of Chittenden’s book, American Fur Trade.

What is known of John Colter is that on October 15, 1803 he joined the famous expedition of Lewis and Clark in Maysville, Kentucky. He would be a permanent member of the expedition, traveling through the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and back. In 1806, when the returning expedition reached what is now North Dakota, Colter parted ways with Lewis and Clark, joining up with two fur trappers from Illinois, Forrest Hancock and Joseph Dickson, on their way to the Yellowstone River. In the spring of 1807, Colter struck out on his own. He was soon recruited by Manuel Lisa of the Missouri Fur Company, and traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone to the mouth of the Bighorn River, where Lisa built a log fort known as Manuel’s Fort.

From here Colter embarked on the journey that would make him a legend. It was the autumn of 1807 when he left, winter of 1808 before he returned, and today, the only written account that remains of Colter’s journey comes from Henry Brackenridge, a writer and frontiersman, who heard the story from Maneul Lisa:

“[Lisa] continued his voyage to the Yellowstone River, where he built a trading fort. He shortly after dispatched Coulter, the hunter before mentioned, to bring some of the Indian nations to trade. This man, with a pack of thirty pounds weight, his gun and some ammunition, went upwards of five hundred miles to the Crow nation; gave them information, and proceeded from them to several other tribes. On his return, a party of Indians in whose company he happened to be was attacked, and he was lamed by a severe wound in the leg; notwithstanding which, he returned to the establishment, entirely alone and without assistance, several hundred miles.”

It was on this “five hundred mile” trek that Coulter, it is believed, became the first white American to travel through what would later be Yellowstone National Park. No one knows Colter’s route for certain. Speculations are based on a path marked “Colter’s Route in 1807″ on the map of the West that William Clark published in 1814. Although this map is known to be distorted, historians have situated Colter’s route inside Yellowstone with a good degree of certainty. Colter would remain in the wilderness until 1810, when he returned to St. Louis — where he is supposed to have related his tales and the route of his journey to Clark. One tale, dated later in 1808, seems to have ensured Colter’s legend. After his journey through Yellowstone, Colter and fellow Lewis and Clarke veteran John Potts were apparently captured by members of the Blackfeet tribe on Jefferson River. Potts was killed and dismembered while Colter was supposedly stripped naked and told to run for his life. The Blackfeet, it is said, intended to hunt him for sport, but Colter managed to elude them and escape to Manuel’s Fort — where he appeared from the woods, gaunt, hungry, and prepared to tell a story that would endear him to history.

For the individual brave enough to embark on a mid-winter wilderness expedition, nature may offer a sense of grace and solitude unobtainable during the crowded summer camping season. Such serenity comes at a cost, however, as the risk of potential dangers is virtually without limit.

There’s no need to panic, of course, so long as one realizes that the key to making it safely in and out of the woods is very careful planning. Every aspect of a winter camping trip should be planned in advance: how many people are going and where exactly they will be traveling, down to the trails they intend to take. Camping reservations or permits may be needed and can be acquired by contacting a ranger’s station. Before leaving, know what the likely weather conditions will be in the area to be traversed, how much snow is on the ground, what time the sun will set — and don’t forget to set aside time to break in those new boots!

It will be easier to keep track of things properly with a supply checklist. Everything should be accounted for: clothing, shelter, food, water, personal equipment. The most important word to remember when considering clothing is layers. Adjustable layers will allow a hiker to add or subtract insulation as his or her body temperature fluctuates. It is never a good idea to sweat excessively, since body heat is lost much quicker when wet, so adjust accordingly. Wool or synthetic clothing, like pile or polypropylene, are preferable — never wear cotton or jeans. Since up to 70-percent of the body’s heat can be lost through the head, a warm hat is indispensable. A balaclava, or ski mask, is recommended for its versatility. Socks should be worn in layers, a gaiter is necessary to prevent snow from getting in boots, and mittens are warmer than gloves. Protect against the elements with a well-ventilated and weatherproof outer layer for the wind and the wet, and sunglasses (or goggles) and sunscreen for the sun — which will be magnified by a snowy surface and could potentially result in snow blindness.

Inexperienced trekkers are advised against attempting long trips. It’s better to begin with a day trip or an overnight as a way of testing one’s capabilities. For those embarking on a longer journey, shelter will be a fundamental consideration. Snow caves and igloos are an effective way of finding shelter in the wild, although a tent will also work. Dome tents shed snow well and provide a good deal of interior space, which is all the more important in winter when there is extra gear. Never cook in a tent since this can lead to carbon monoxide poisoning. Be sure to eat, though. Appetites tend to diminish during wintertime activities, but the body actually needs more fuel than usual. It is also vital to keep hydrated, so put some thought into where to find water — a river, beneath the frozen surface of a stream or lake. Water from such places will need to be purified and the best way to purify water in winter is to boil it (at least three to five minutes, adding one minute for every 1,000 feet above sea level). Filtration pumps can freeze and crack and chemical treatments, such as iodine and chlorine, are rendered ineffective at colder temperatures. One can also melt snow over the stove, although this will use up fuel (and never eat snow, this takes up too much energy!). In terms of equipment, make sure to have a sufficiently warm sleeping bag, one that is rated for a temperature lower than that expected, and a ground pad at least half an inch thick. Internal frame packs are generally better for winter use than external frames, and if this is a backcountry expedition, it is likely to require either snowshoes or cross-country skis.

This only covers the basics, actually, because really anything could happen and one must be prepared for simply everything. At Yellowstone National Park, for instance, visitors are advised: “There are dangers inherent in wilderness: unpredictable wildlife, changing weather conditions, remote thermal areas, deep snow, open streams, and rugged mountains with extreme avalanche danger. When you choose to explore Yellowstone, you experience the land on its own terms; there is no guarantee of your safety. Be prepared for any situation. Carefully read all backcountry guidelines and regulations, and know the limit of your ability.” This last point seems particularly important. Being prepared for a wilderness trip means not only knowing what to prepare for, but what to do if those preparations go afoul. Dehydration, food poisoning, diarrhea. These are relatively common afflictions that any wintertime traveler should anticipate and be ready to manage. Accidental falls, stove explosions, the collapse of a tent overburdened with snow, ice axe or crampon stabbing injuries. (There is a whole list of these — better to be prepared for them all.) Learn how to identify precarious crevices hidden beneath the snow as well as loose branches in the trees that, in high winds, could potentially fall on one’s tent in the middle of the night. Be able to recognize and avoid avalanche territory. Know what to do during an ice crossing or a sudden whiteout. Don’t travel alone, bring a first aid kit, and, before leaving, be certain to inform a friend or loved one of the destination and expected time of return.

Yellowstone National Park is a world of predators, scavengers and opportunists. In this vast and complex kingdom, two dominant predators reign supreme: the grizzly bear and the wolf. Size and power square off against speed and teamwork, as mighty grizzly bears contend with powerful packs of wolves for control of the food supply. Normally these two fearsome hunters would rule their ranges uncontested, but in Yellowstone they must share resources, or face starvation. Buy the DVD. This film premiered in January 17, 2010.

No photos? There are lots of ways you can join the NATURE community.

Created with flickrSLiDR.

The Yellowstone grizzly bear was removed from the Endangered Species List in 2007. Their population continues to grow, increasing by 4 to 7 percent a year. Their range is still expanding both north and south of Yellowstone National Park.

But conflicts remain. In 2008, grizzly deaths in the Yellowstone ecosystem were reported to be high. Seventy-nine bears were killed. Another year of such high mortality could trigger a review of the grizzly’s listing status.

Two of the grizzly’s key food sources, cutthroat trout and white bark pine seeds, are increasingly uncertain. Trout runs have been eliminated on many streams, and white bark pine trees are suffering from blister rust and beetle damage across much of their range. But this year, the remaining trees are producing a strong seed crop and the bears are harvesting good calories from seeds and moths in preparation for winter.

The agencies and concerned conservation groups are monitoring the bears closely. For more information, please click on the links below:

• The Missoulian: “Opinion: Yellowstone grizzly recovery is conservation success story” – August 20, 2009
• The Missoulian: “Opinion: Yellowstone grizzlies need protection” – August 7, 2009
• Jackson Hole Daily: “Expert: Help relist grizzlies” – May 22, 2009
• Reuters: “Forests fall to pine beetle outbreak” – August 4, 2009