Overview
Remind students of the significance of the Laws of Motion and the scientific principle that underlies them—Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity, which states that nothing in the universe can travel faster than the speed of light.
Remind students of the famous formula e = mc^2.
The formula connects two different things: matter and energy. To measure energy, one must multiply the mass of an object by the speed of light squared, which is 300,000,000 meters per second. The answer is recorded as “Joules” and while a small number of Joules are exerted when a simple change happens, like a pin dropping, the theory was used to develop the atomic bomb. Albert Einstein, at the urging of a colleague in the scientific community with less name recognition, wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939 to request funding for research that led to the development of the Manhattan Project, due to concern that Germany was working on its own atomic weapons. The Germans, had they stopped the sale of uranium ore in Czechoslovakia, would have indicated that they fully comprehended the power behind the radioactive elements and intended to use them in war.
It was Einstein's earlier work, the theories of special relativity and general relativity, that form the basis of physics as it is known today. While it was thought that gravity was an independent force, Einstein’s theory of general relativity states that it is a distortion of the time-space caused by bodies of matter. (Show students where time and matter, or mass, are represented in e=mc^2).
Objective
Students will discuss a new discovery within the scientific community, including why and how new events are shared.
Subjects
Science, physics
Estimated time
One class period, with homework
Grade level
9 - 12
Background
Einstein’s theory of special relativity was built on the work of Galileo and the principle of relativity, which states that all motion is relative and that there is no such thing as an absolute and well-defined state of rest. Einstein’s theory of special relativity adds that the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers, regardless of the state of motion of the source. In other words, the speed of light never changes, whether objects are moving or not, and movement or inertia (not moving) can be a temporary condition or state, but the speed of light is a constant; nothing is faster.
Special relativity is based on two key postulates :
- The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames (frames of reference that are not accelerating). In other words, the fundamental laws of nature work the same way for all observers moving at constant speeds.
- The speed of light in a vacuum is constant for all observers. No matter how fast the source of the light or the observer is moving, light always travels at the same speed, denoted by c (approximately 300,000 kilometers, or 186,000 miles, per second).
The theory of general relativity is used when gravity is a factor. This is also called the generalization of the theory of special relativity.
This equation has been the cornerstone of physics, and the two postulates challenged Galileo's work because his solutions break down as objects approach the speed of light. Einstein’s ideas were repeatedly tested and scrutinized by scientists around the world. Although his original work relied on several assumptions, decades of experiments and observations have consistently supported his predictions. As a result, the principles of special relativity are now considered foundational to modern physics and are taught in classrooms worldwide, including the principle that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light.
In 2011, scientists found something even faster, and it was called a neutrino.
Procedure
Computers with Internet access, including the ability to view video and listen to audio files.
Step 1:
Share with students the article: small particles raise big questions about foundations of physics
Students should listen to the 4-minute audio clip, which includes details not in the article.
Ask students to listen for definitions of the following key terms:
- Neutrinos
- The speed of light
- The theory of relativity
- Experimentalists
Step 2:
Discuss with the class if this finding means that Albert Einstein was wrong. Would the laws of physics have to be re-written if something travels faster than the speed of light?
If e = mc^2 does not account for the fact that neutrinos, which are matter and are faster, would a new formula have to include the consideration of what neutrinos are? Ask students to creatively make equations that factor in neutrinos. (Consider, in the explanation, that the speed of light may still be constant, and that more experimenting will be done).
Step 3:
In small groups, or individually, have students define the terms included in the lesson, and on the newscast.
(This sheet can also be given for homework.)
Step 4:
Discuss with students that when Galileo Galilei proposed the heliocentric model—that the Earth revolves around the Sun rather than the Sun revolving around the Earth—his ideas were met with significant opposition. At the time, many scholars could not independently verify his observations because the stellar parallax needed to provide direct evidence for Earth's motion was too small to be detected with the telescopes available. As a result, Galileo's findings challenged widely accepted beliefs and were viewed with suspicion. He was eventually tried for heresy by the Roman Catholic Church and ordered to recant his views. Despite defending his conclusions, Galileo spent the remainder of his life under house arrest.
With this in mind, read this article about the new findings, and consider the modern day challenges the scientists at CERN will face in announcing their work, which challenges that of Albert Einstein. Consider that Einstein called Galileo the Father of Modern Science.
Step 5:
Within days of the announcement that scientists may have detected particles traveling faster than the speed of light, researchers around the world expressed skepticism. The claim challenged one of the central principles of modern physics—Einstein’s theory that nothing can travel faster than light—and many scientists found it difficult to believe that such a foundational idea could be incorrect.
In the article below, one physicist explains that if faster-than-light travel were possible, it could lead to situations that seem to violate our understanding of cause and effect. For example, a message sent from one location could, under certain circumstances, be received before it was sent.
Physicist dismisses 'discovery' of particles that can travel faster than the speed of light
Extension activities
Ask students to compare the reactions of the community in the times of Galileo Galilei and the modern day reaction to the aforementioned announcement. What role does further experimentation play in determining if a scientific theory becomes a law? Remember the steps in the scientific method:
- Ask a Question
- Do Background Research
- Construct a Hypothesis
- Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
- Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
- Communicate Your Results
Why were the experiments at CERN repeated again and again? The audio clip references a similar result that could not be proven, in recent years. Are the scientists who doubt the finding jealous? Are they concerned about their own work? What if the laws on which they have based their careers, and in fact, the way we see the universe, not accurate?
Have students write an article for a scientific magazine, supporting the findings or dismissing them. In the article, include details about this discovery, the parts of the announcement where others considered there could be errors, and the way that the facts were proven or disproven. The article should be based on an imaginary outcome, and it should be dated either a year from the date of the announcement (September 26, 2011) or a year from the day of the lesson. Students should use at least three terms from the lesson in their work, and show both sides of the debate before coming to a conclusion. Grading should be based on demonstration of the understanding of why it is important to publish results to others in the community, even when it controversial to do so.
For an additional challenge, ask students to write the article from the perspective of different kinds of physicists. Experimental physicists gather data about the universe by observing physical phenomena. Theoretical physicists use mathematical models to “rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.” Which sounds like a more interesting career? Which field would be more impacted if Einstein were “wrong”?
By Shannon Sullivan
This lesson was published on February 22, 2013, and updated June 4, 2026.
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