Google Balloons Send Internet Soaring Through the Clouds

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  Jon Brodkin, writing for ArsTechnica:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Google this week launched 30 balloons into the stratosphere in the first step toward creating what it calls a “network in the sky” that could eventually bring “balloon-powered Internet [to] everyone.”
  </p>
<p>
   Dubbed “Project Loon,” Google’s balloon-based wireless networks aim to bring 3G-like speed to what Google says are the “2 out of every 3 people on Earth” who lack a fast, affordable Internet connection. Google’s plan has been rumored for weeks. As we
   <a href="http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/06/googles-balloon-based-wireless-networks-may-not-be-a-crazy-idea/">
    wrote earlier this month
   </a>
   , balloon-based communications are well established for military communications and have been proposed for public safety use in disaster areas. Google could be the first to make balloon-based networks widely used for commercial Internet access.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  One of the key hurdles Google had to surmount was how to maintain coverage with a fleet of balloons that is, at least partially, at the mercy of the winds. They solved it like they have many other problems—by throwing massive amounts of computing power at it. That way each balloon can piggyback on air currents, and when the winds aren’t in its favor, nudge the craft onto a favorable course.
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<img alt="Project Loon" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/google-balloons.width-990_MOc45IA.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Google is not the first to pursue balloons as vehicles for commercial Internet access, but its use of wind and solar power to direct their paths is innovative.
        
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</figure>
<p>
  Discover how Google dreamt up this way to access the cloud through technology held aloft
  <em>
   in
  </em>
  the clouds:
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 Photo credit:
 <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/ilitephoto/9052643301/sizes/l/in/photolist-eMXasV-8367w1-8369Jd-81JAH3-81JzpW-81JA6w-81FrFK-81FtLe-81JCL1-81JzLb-81EsMc-83zxqq/">
  iLighter/Flickr
 </a>
</p>

Scientists Take Global Warming's Temperature

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  By how many degrees would the average temperature of the Earth rise if carbon dioxide levels doubled? Scientists have been pursuing an accurate estimate of this figure since the late 19th century—it’s the “holy grail of climate science,” writes Justin Gillis in
  <em>
   The New York Times.
  </em>
  Most experts believe that this “climate sensitivity” figure lies somewhere just above five degrees Fahrenheit.
 </p>
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   That may not sound like a particularly scary number to many people — after all, we experience temperature variations of 20 or 30 degrees in a single day. But as an average for the entire planet, five degrees is a huge number.
  </p>
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   The ocean, covering 70 percent of the surface, helps bring down the average, but the warming is expected to be higher over land, causing weather extremes like heat waves and torrential rains. And the poles will warm even more, so that the increase in the Arctic could exceed 10 or 15 degrees Fahrenheit. That could cause substantial melting of the polar ice sheets, ultimately flooding the world’s major coastal cities.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p itemprop="articleBody">
  Some recent studies, though, have proposed estimates below four degrees, stirring climate change skeptics and making some wonder if the future might look better than expected. But the well-regarded climate scientist James Annan warns against dismissing the threat of global warming. Gillis concludes:
 </p>
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   Even if climate sensitivity turns out to be on the low end of the range, total emissions may wind up being so excessive as to drive the earth toward dangerous temperature increases.
  </p>
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   So if the recent science stands up to critical examination, it could indeed turn into a ray of hope — but only if it is then followed by a broad new push to get the combustion of fossil fuels under control.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p itemprop="articleBody">
  Alternatively, we might be able to put excessive carbon dioxide
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/carbon-sink.html" title="into storage.">
   into storage
  </a>
  .
 </p>
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Electric Shocks to Brain Could Improve Math Skills

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  Oxford University researchers found that students were better number-crunchers after a five-day course of brain stimulation. Here’s Ian Sample writing for Guardian Science:
 </p>
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<p>
   If future studies prove that it works – and is safe – the cheap and non-invasive procedure might be used routinely to boost the cognitive power of those who fall behind in maths, the scientists said. Researchers led by Roi Cohen Kadosh zapped students’ brains with a technique called transcranial random noise stimulation (TRNS) while they performed simple calculations, or tried to remember mathematical facts by rote learning.
  </p>
<p>
   In the study published in
   <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.045" title="">
    Current Biology
   </a>
   , 25 students had electrical pulses fired across their brains, while 26 others had a sham treatment, in which they thought they had brain stimulation, but the equipment was turned off.
  </p>
<p>
   In tests afterwards, the students who had their brains stimulated solved maths puzzles 27% faster than the control group, suggesting that their brains were working more efficiently.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Some scientists doubt the claim’s validity, primarily because the study’s sample size was so small. Widespread implementation of this practice could also have ethical ramifications. Listen to this NOVA
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/boost-kids-brainpower.html" title="radio story">
   radio story
  </a>
  (co-produced with PRI’s The World) to learn more.
 </p>
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How to Grow a Green Roof

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  Green rooftops aren’t just verdant escapes for urban dwellers. For the past two years, New York City
  <a href="http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/html/home/home.shtml" target="_blank">
   Mayor Michael Bloomberg’s PlaNYC initiative
  </a>
  has offered tax abatements for green roof construction projects, which help stabilize building temperatures and manage stormwater runoff. Many of these rooftops are populated with sedum, a plant that’s resilient to wind and UV rays, but, unfortunately, can sometimes make buildings hotter by absorbing heat rather than reflecting it. So what’s a good alternative? The answer might lie in the soil—not the plants themselves. Here’s Amy Kraft writing for Scientific American:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Krista McGuire has taken sedum’s inadequacy as a challenge. The assistant professor of biological sciences at Barnard College wanted to see if a variety of native plants could survive on green roofs and how well they would deliver the desired benefits. Since 2010, the year Bloomberg announced his green roof initiative, McGuire has been comparing soil samples from 10 roofs planted with native vegetation with soil from five city parks spanning New York’s five boroughs, seeking to identify the microbial communities that thrive on green roofs to better to understand how healthy rooftop ecosystems sustain themselves.
  </p>
<p>
   Her study,
   <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0058020" target="_blank">
    published in
    <em>
     PLoS ONE
    </em>
</a>
   last April,
   <strong>
</strong>
   found that green roofs have distinct fungal communities that help plants to thrive in harsh, polluted environments and filter heavy metals. On average, 109 different types of fungi were present on each roof including
   <em>
    Pseudallescheria fimeti
   </em>
   , a fungus that grows in polluted soils and human-dominated environments. Rooftop soil also contained fungi from the genus
   <em>
    Peyronellaea,
   </em>
   which live in the tissues of plants to help them take in nutrients.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Her study might be a step in right direction:
 </p>
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<p>
   “In the long term, this information may help individuals decide which types of soil microbes to amend on their green roofs, so that they can maximize plant survival and minimize management,” she says.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  This discovery is a variation on
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/nature/fungal-network-helps-plants-communicate/" title="last week's">
   last week’s
  </a>
  ; a study published in Ecology Letters found that subterranean fungal networks help plants warn each other against impending aphid attacks.
 </p>
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3D Printed Soft Robots Could Ease Pain of Surgery

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  Surgery is a risky and brutal business. Even today’s most advanced medical technology—surgical robots—involves the touch of cold, unyielding metal to soft, delicate flesh. With all of those complications, surgery today can still be a precarious procedure. But soft robots
  <a href="http://www.gizmag.com/camouflage-robot-harvard/23749/" title="first created">
   first created
  </a>
  by Harvard University scientists might provide some relief.
 </p>
<p>
  The robots’ ability to maneuver through small spaces and
  <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpOl_pEmRqs" title="camouflage themselves">
   camouflage themselves
  </a>
  like
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/kings-of-camouflage.html" title="cuttlefish">
   cuttlefish
  </a>
  do initially caught the attention of the military. But now these squishy creations are being re-imagined as biomedical tools. Here’s Larry Greenemeier writing for Scientific American:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Hard robots require a sophisticated feedback mechanism to help them determine how much force to apply during surgery so they do not damage our delicate tissues and organs. Soft robots could take advantage of their rubbery appendages to reduce the likelihood of surgical damage, says Carl Vause, CEO of Soft Robotics. “Specifically, with medical devices, [you would be] allowing a robotic instrument to get into a small space, be reconfigurable in that space and do it in a way that’s tissue compliant.” Another advantage: Soft robots can be 3-D printed in a day or two from silicone and other materials that cost about $20.
  </p>
</blockquote>
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/soft-robot.width-990_wsY6yJA.jpg"/>
<figcaption>This glowing robot might also be the surgical tool of the future.
        
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<p>
  Robotic surgery has prompted
  <a href="http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/09/09/new-concerns-on-robotic-surgeries/" title="some concern">
   some concern
  </a>
  in the recent past. The most well-known robot surgical system, known as da Vinci, is a $2 million endeavor that allows surgeons to manipulate laparoscopic instruments and an endoscopic camera attached to four robotic arms. But da Vinci significantly ups the cost of surgery and has also led to several lawsuits due to reports of sepsis, punctured blood vessels, and more.
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   It will be some time before soft robots are capable of anything nearly as sophisticated as da Vinci, but there is a lot of interest in how this emerging technology could be used in the medical field—either on its own or combined with a surgical system like da Vinci.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Experts are also interested in how soft robots could aid in prosthetics. Discover how scientists and engineers are
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/tech/prospects-for-prostheses/">
   adding intelligence and flexibility into advanced prostheses
  </a>
  .
 </p>
<p>
  To learn more about one of the critters that inspired soft robots, watch “Kings of Camouflage” below and tune in to NOVA’s “
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/making-more-stuff.html#making-stuff-wilder" title="Making Stuff: Wilder">
   Making Stuff: Wilder
  </a>
  ,” airing October 23 at 9/8c on PBS.
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<p>
 Photo courtesy
 <a href="http://www.darpa.mil/NewsEvents/Releases/2012/08/16a.aspx">
  DARPA
 </a>
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For Better Recovery from Surgery, Tap Into Music's Rhythms

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<p>
  What if you could improve the outcome of an open-heart surgery simply by pressing “play?”
 </p>
<p>
  Doctors, psychologists, and other scientists have been using music therapy for years, treating a number of diseases like dementia, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and cerebral ischemia. Even for people without those diseases, music has positive psychological and emotional affects. A study last year even demonstrated that listening to
  <a href="http://www.psmag.com/culture-society/struggling-to-reconcile-conflicting-beliefs-listen-to-mozart-47766/" title="Mozart could help resolve cognitive dissonance">
   Mozart could help people resolve cognitive dissonance
  </a>
  .
 </p>
<p>
  Now, researchers in Tokyo might have evidence that music really can make us feel better physically, not just mentally or emotionally. They serenaded a group of mice which were undergoing organ transplants with varying types of music—from Verdi’s to Mozart and even “The Best of Enya.” The results were promising. Here’s Maria Konnikova writing for The New Yorker:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   At Teikyo University, Masanori Niimi and his colleagues began to notice differences between the groups as the mice recovered: the mice placed in the silent or the single-frequency rooms suffered from acute graft rejection, as their immune systems rejected the foreign cells from the transplants. Those who had been listening to either Verdi or Mozart showed significantly improved survival outcomes, living an average of twenty days longer.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Unfortunately, the mice who listened to Enya didn’t do as well, living an average of just four days longer than mice exposed to the flat tone or nothing at all.
 </p>
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/baby-headphones-cropped2.width-990_cm1bp3j.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Listening to music could help patients recover from complex surgeries.
        
    </figcaption>
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<p>
  Of course, any study that involves mice is subject to further scrutiny, since what works in mice might not work well in humans. World cultures may be attuned to music differently, too. But the key point is that rhythm appears to have a physiological and biological basis. The human auditory cortex particularly adept in its ability to differentiate between frequencies of sound:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   In fact, single neurons
   <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18185589?dopt=Abstract">
    can adjust
   </a>
   to barely noticeable frequency shifts at a level that exceeds almost all other mammals (bats are the exception). Music with a four-four tempo, which corresponds closely to a normal heart rate,
   <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/260788">
    can help
   </a>
   regulate heart rate, circulation, and breathing. Lyrical melodies and rhythms of about sixty to eighty beats a minute, which is common to much classical music and bird song,
   <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18298503">
    can stimulate
   </a>
   relaxation and alpha brain waves, a type of pattern associated with wakeful relaxation. Yet music that departs from either of those tempos confers none of the benefits.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Presumably, then, implementation of the right kind of music could help patients recover from a variety of procedures. Other scientists have even studied the effect of music on our sympathetic nervous system, metabolism, and even immune system. Perhaps someday doctors may prescribe a soundtrack to our surgery specially tuned to our biorhythms, making a speedy recovery not just dependent on medicine and rest.
 </p>
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<p>
 Photo Credit: Flickr/Patricil (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
</p>

Nearing Certainty About Heisenberg's Uncertainty... Or Not

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  One of the basic tenets of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which states that the more precisely one measures a particle’s momentum, the more uncertain its position becomes. The reverse is also true, which means that in theory, it’s impossible to know the exact position and momentum of a subatomic particle at the same time.
 </p>
<p>
  Heisenberg originally used the principle to show that there is a limit to the accuracy of particle detectors, but he never offered direct evidence to support his ideas. Now, UK physicist Paul Busch and his colleagues believe they have a proof. Here’s Ron Cowen, writing for Nature:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   In their theoretical work, Busch and his colleagues imagined making simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position and momentum in an arbitrary quantum state. They compared the errors in such measurements to two special cases — in which either the position or the momentum of the particle is well known. They found that the combined errors in measurements of the position or momentum in these two cases obeyed Heisenberg’s principle and was always smaller than for cases in which the two properties were measured simultaneously. This step allowed them to prove Heisenberg’s original conjecture.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Scientists remain skeptical, though. Read the
  <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/proof-mooted-for-quantum-uncertainty-1.13270" title="full article">
   full article
  </a>
  to learn more about one physicist’s objection to Busch’s proof, as well as what those doubts mean for quantum computing. For some background on quantum computing, hear from
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/quantum-computing.html" title="MIT's Seth Lloyd">
   MIT’s Seth Lloyd
  </a>
  . And for some comic relief, watch this video:
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  Quantum mechanics is nothing to laugh at. Well, sometimes it is.
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Allison Eck

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