Two Genes May Explain Up to 10% of Violent Crime

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<p>
  What makes a criminal?
 </p>
<p>
  We will never have a blanket answer to that question, but according to new research out of Finland, many criminals may share a pair of genes that the researchers say is linked to higher rates of violent crime and recidivism. The paper, published this week in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, reports on the genetic analysis of approximately 900 criminal offenders. It is the first genetic study to look at such a large pool of violent criminals.
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/prisoner-handcuffed.width-990_1Jy1Pd5.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Among criminals surveyed in Finland, those with two gene variants were more likely to be repeat offenders.
        
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<p>
  The study states that the results “imply that at least 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable” to the two genes. Criminals whose genome contained those variants were 13 times more likely to commit repeated violent crimes than those without. Of the 900 offenders, the 78 with the most violent profiles had the clearest connection between the two genes and their behavior, while among nonviolent offenders, the prevalence of the variants was not significant. According to the BBC, the number of the violent crimes—murders, attempted murders, manslaughters, and batteries—stood at a combined 1,154 incidences amongst the 900 offenders.
 </p>
<p>
  Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cadherin 13 (CDH13), the two genes identified in the study, have both been linked to violent crime before. MAOA, often referred to as the “warrior gene,” is responsible for an enzyme deficiency that creates a hyperdophaminergic state, or “dopamine hyperactivity,” according to Jari Tiihonen, a professor at the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden and lead author of the paper,
 </p>
<p>
  Dopamine is a required neurotransmitter for processes like concentration, motivation, and retention; too much or too little has been implicated in various psychological disorders, including violent behavior. Drugs like amphetamines can exacerbate the problem.
 </p>
<p>
  The researchers were careful to emphasize that “the genes could not be used to screen criminals.” Simply possessing the genes is not enough to guarantee that a person will commit a violent crime, just as not carrying the genetic sequence prevents one from engaging in violence. Here’s Melissa Hogenboom, reporting for BBC News:
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<p>
   For now, a person’s genetic information should not have any influence on conviction outcomes in criminal courts, Prof Tiihonen added.
  </p>
<p>
   “There are many things which can contribute to a person’s mental capacity. The only thing that matters is the mental capacity of the individual to understand the consequences of what he or she is doing and whether or not the individual can control his or her own behavior.”
  </p>
<p>
   Christopher Ferguson of Stetson University in the US state of Florida agreed. He said it must be remembered that there was not “one or even two genes that by themselves code for violence or crime”.
  </p>
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<p>
  Even if more gene variants are tied to violent behavior, genetics alone likely won’t tell us why a person is driven to criminal behavior. As always, environmental factors play an important role.
 </p>
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  Explore the genetics behind criminal minds, the latest in lie detection, a human corpse “farm,” and more in "Can Science Stop Crime?."
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 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/remuz78/544459833">
  remuz/Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND)
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Anthony Kamara, a community activist, examines a logging site in Korninga Chiefdom, Gbarpolu County, where leaders claim their land was illegally given to logging companies through forged documents and misconduct.

Norway Pays Liberia to Halt Deforestation in a First of Its Kind Deal

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<p>
 Earlier this week, Liberia announced it would accept $150 million in developmental aid from Norway tied to assurances that by the year 2020 all deforestation will be stopped in the West African nation. Liberia will accept the funding in order to pay small communities to avoid deforesting their land.
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<p>
 West Africa has some of the highest deforestation rates in the world. Logging and land clearing have cut the forest to less than one fifth its original acreage. As part of the deal, Norway also will aid in developing forestry monitoring and policing systems, including independent verification to ensure that the goals set forth in the agreement are met and sustained.
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<p>
 Deforestation is common in impoverished regions, as both locals and governments use profits from logging and land sales to maintain cash flows. In Liberia, following a 14-year civil war, land tenure rights and resource management became a priority for the recovering nation. That resulted in the passage of the 2013 Land Rights Policy, which revamped the system of private land ownership.
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<p>
 Prior to this, starting in 1864, if a plot of land did not have a legal document stating it belonged to an individual, the Liberian government treated the land as public domain. Because of this, both legal and illegal logging, mining, and other for-profit ventures could be conducted on private land without any royalties or benefits from the operations going into the pockets of those the resources were taken from. This has only exacerbated poverty in the country, which in turn has increased the pressure on the remaining forests as poor people try to eke out a living.
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<p>
 Reducing poverty isn’t the only benefit officials are hoping to reap from the deal. The current Ebola outbreak
 <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/nature/control-ebola-epidemic-caused-cutting-rainforest/">
  may have been an unfortunate side-effect of deforestation
 </a>
 by bringing animals and humans closer together, encouraging the spread of zoonosis. Deforestation has brought chimpanzees and fruit bats, two creatures that carry Ebola virus, in closer proximity to greater concentrations of humans than ever before. And more humans are going deeper into the jungle, closer to these animals, in search of precious metals and materials.
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 Preventing deforestation during both a major international public health crisis and an economic downturn will prove difficult for both the Liberians and the Norwegians, but the end result will hopefully deliver on the shared hope that the move will reduce Liberian poverty levels and lessen some of the environmental impact that illegal logging has brought about the country.
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<p>
 Matt McGrath, reporting for BBC News:
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<p>
 Experts believe that Liberia has turned to logging as a way of raising cash in difficult times. With the current Ebola outbreak having a significant economic impact on the country, the Norwegian deal is timely.
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<p>
 “Our hope is that the situation there now will be contained and resolved,” said [Norwegian political advisor Jens] Frolich Holte.
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<p>
 “But we also need to give Liberia a long term hope for development and that is what this rainforest money will provide for them, a long term vision for a country with reduced poverty and reduced deforestation,” said Frolich Holte.
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<p>
 While the Liberian and Norwegian governments are optimistic about the new deal, campaigners from groups such as Global Witness point to the Liberian government’s corruption and authority problems as potential roadblocks, though if the agreement is a success, the entire country could benefit.
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 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tlupic/7936539804">
  Travis Lupick/Flickr (CC BY-NC-SA)
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<p>The benefits for the African nation could extend well beyond public health.</p>

Reshaping Eyeballs Temporarily Fixes Nearsightedness

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<p>
  If you’re like 40% of Americans, you could probably stand to have your eyeballs reshaped.
 </p>
<p>
  Myopia—also known as nearsightedness—happens when a person’s eyeball is too long or their cornea is too curved. Glasses and contacts are a common fix, but ophthalmologists have been working on a new option—contacts that temporarily reshape a wearer’s eyeballs.
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/phoropter.width-990_b4omUKv.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Some ophthalmologists think a new treatment could help temporarily reverse myopia.
        
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<p>
  New developments are allowing children who suffer from myopia to temporarily transform their the eyes by wearing specialized contact lenses overnight, a process known as orthokeratology or ortho-k. Wearers can pop out the lenses in the morning and their eyeballs retain their corrected shape throughout the next day, according to the American Optometric Association.
 </p>
<p>
  Since the 1970s there has been a 16.6% increase in the occurrence of myopia in people between the ages of 12 and 54 years, according to a study by researchers from the National Eye Institute, a diviosn of the NIH. The root cause behind the uptick in cases of nearsightedness is unknown, though researchers point to the rigors of school and the increased usage of small, personal electronic devices with bright screens as a potential contributor. Here’s Sindya N. Bhanoo with the New York Times:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “It can’t be entirely genetic, because genes don’t change that fast,” said Susan Vitale, an epidemiologist at the National Institutes of Health who studies myopia. “It’s probably something that’s environmental, or a combination of genetic and environmental factors.”
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Though ophthalmologists have long used contact lenses and eyeglasses to correct the effects of myopia, the prospects for ortho-k are still up in the air. Experts are concerned that there may be a high risk of infection among children who wear the overnight lenses since they may not always take proper care of them, causing bacterial build up.
 </p>
<p>
  But if the wearer can follow doctor’s orders to the letter, then ortho-k could not only correct their vision for the next day, it may also slow the rate at which their eyesight degrades, though some ophthalmologists remain skeptical.
 </p>
<p>
  No one knows for certain whether children who go through ortho-k treatment end up with better vision in adulthood. To date, no studies have been conducted that followed children prescribed ortho-k into adulthood. For now, there is one preventative measure parents can take to ward off myopia in their children—reduce their time with personal electronic devices and tell them to play outside.
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<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nomadic_lass/8358691955">
  Nomadic Lass
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NASA Hopes to Test Mining Moon Water for Future Manned Missions

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<p>
  Two proposed missions would scour the moon’s upper crust for deposits of ice that may support moon bases.
 </p>
<p>
  We may soon be one sip of water closer to living on the moon, at least if NASA’s plans pan out. The space agency has announced their intention to send two new missions to the moon to analyze and mine pockets of frozen water. The projects, nicknamed Lunar Flashlight and Resource Prospector Mission (RPM), will launch in late 2017 and 2018, respectively.
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/moon-south-pole.width-990_6xAKnwE.jpg"/>
<figcaption>The lunar poles are thought to harbor massive reserves of ice.
        
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<p>
  Scientists are seeking to determine if future manned lunar outposts could exploit the deposits as a resource for drinking water. Here’s Mike Wall reporting for Space.com:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “If you’re going to have humans on the moon and you need water for drinking, breathing, rocket fuel, anything you want, it’s much, much cheaper to live off the land than it is to bring everything with you,” said Lunar Flashlight principal investigator Barbara Cohen, of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Lunar Flashlight will be making approximately 80 rotations around the moon’s atmosphere, hovering a mere 12 miles over the lunar surface. The intent of the mission is to find, measure, and map pockets of ice in darkened craters within and around the lunar poles.
 </p>
<p>
  The Lunar Flashlight mission would use a solar sail to carry the spacecraft along its orbital route. According to Cohen, the device would begin to expand upon reaching space, from “the size of a cereal box” into an 860-square foot solar sail. It will take Lunar Flashlight six months to reach the moon and another year to slowly descend to the 12-mile-high research orbit.
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  LCROSS, an earlier NASA mission that looked for water on the moon, was a relatively low-budget affair.
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<p>
  While Lunar Flashlight will only observe easily accessible deposits of water, RPM will operate on the surface of the moon. The rover will be equipped with drills and other materials to extract samples from 3.3 feet below the moon’s surface. It will chart water concentrations with an on-board neutron spectrometer and a near-infrared spectrometer. It’ll have to work fast, though, as it’s lifespan is expected to be only one week as it crawls from the near side of the moon into permanently dark lunar territory.
 </p>
<p>
  Neither the Lunar Flashlight nor RPM projects have been approved by NASA yet, but if they are accepted, the knowledge could bring us closer to greater understanding the moon’s water resources—and what we might be able to do with them should we return.
 </p>
<p>
  Two proposed NASA missions would lay more groundwork for manned lunar bases.
 </p>
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<p>
 NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio
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Fracking Contamination Traced to Leaky Well Linings

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<p>
  Even before videos of flaming tap water went viral, contaminated drinking water was a concern for many Americans living on or near fracking sites. Fracking involves injecting a solution of potentially toxic chemicals underground, which have the potential to seep into drinking water sources. Two new studies suggest it may not be the injections themselves that are contaminating water supplies, but leaks in poorly constructed wells that bring the gas to the surface.
 </p>
<p>
  On Monday, U.S. Department of Energy researchers in western Pennsylvania announced that they had “found no evidence that chemicals or brine water from the gas drilling process” had contaminated drinking water, according to a report by the Associated Press. The report further muddied the already hazy problem of determining the source of the drinking water contamination in these regions.
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<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/horizontal_drilling_rig.width-990_1puU69F.jpg"/>
<figcaption>A horizontal drilling well used in fracking
        
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<p>
  But
  <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/09/12/1322107111" target="_blank">
   another study
  </a>
  , published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences earlier this week, may have some answers as to why some people have been reporting contamination.
 </p>
<p>
  Matt McGrath, reporting for BBC News:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “The mechanism of contamination looks to be well integrity,” said one of the authors, Prof Robert Jackson from Stanford University.
  </p>
<p>
   “In about half the cases we believe the contamination came from poor cementing and in the other half it came from well casings that leaked.”
  </p>
<p>
   The current cement wall linings don’t appear to be strong enough to withstand the immense pressure used in fracking. Another part of the problem could be the speed at which these wells are drilled.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Here’s McGrath again, this time interviewing Quentin Fisher, a professor at the University of Leeds:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “The licensing system in the US means that companies have to drill a massive number of wells very quickly. This is not the case in the UK/EU so far more care can be taken to ensure that leakage into groundwater does not occur.”
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Even if the weak wells are fixed, other studies have exposed issues related to fracking, including
  <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/earth/oklahoma-earthquakes-california-2014-partly-fracking/">
   increased geologic activity
  </a>
  .
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</section>
<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Horizontal_Drilling_Rig.jpg">
  Meredithw/Wikimedia Commons (CC BY)
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This Fish Has No Circadian Rhythm, and It’s Better Off For It

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<p>
  The blind Mexican tetra, a species favored by evolution researchers, has revealed yet another quirk of natural selection—the cave fish doesn’t have an circadian rhythm, a curious tick that isn’t normally found in the wild.
 </p>
<p>
  Swedish researchers discovered the quirk when they compared the metabolic rates of the cave-dwelling form with its surface dwelling counterpart when the two were exposed to varying lighting conditions designed to mimic day/night cycles.
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<figcaption>The blind Mexican tetra saves energy by doing away with its metabolic clock.
        
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<p>
  Biological clocks are linked to circadian rhythms, which take their cues from the rising and setting of the sun. It is what drives the humans to sleep at night and be productive during the day. Circadian rhythms also tie into metabolic functions; certain times of day cause our metabolism to either ramp up or slow down energy production.
 </p>
<p>
  To mimic day and night conditions for the tetra, researchers fiddled with the amount of light that each form of the fish was exposed to. While oxygen intake of the surface-dwelling tetra fluctuated based on its metabolic rate, researchers noticed something curious about the cave-dwelling tetra’s metabolic cycles. They simply weren’t there, and based on the data the researchers gathered, that absence appears to confer an evolutionary advantage. Here’s Elizabeth Palermo:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Regardless of whether it was light or dark, the fish consumed roughly the same amount of oxygen, the researchers found. By forgoing the circadian rhythms that control metabolism, the blind Mexican cavefish was able to expend nearly 30 percent less energy in a 24-hour period than its surface-dwelling counterparts.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Species living in extreme ecosystems are known to adapt in extreme ways. The cave-dwelling Mexican tetra doesn’t just lack a circadian rhythm, it also lacks eyes, a common adaptation to low-light conditions. A variety of salamanders, spiders, and small underground mammals, for example, have developed ways of feeling their way around their environment without the aid of eyesight.
 </p>
<p>
  The fish’s missing circadian rhythm has researchers stumped. Damian Moran, one of three scientists involved in designing and carrying out the study, says the study raises more questions than it answers. Here’s Palermo again:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “Not only do we not really know that much about circadian energy use in animals in general, we don’t even know how to consider animals that don’t have these circadian rhythms,” Moran said.
  </p>
<p>
   “We tend to assume that these rhythms are always adaptive, that they serve some really important purpose. But what happens in animals that don’t have these cycles? It’s a real conundrum.”
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Circadian rhythms help prepare the body so it can perform certain tasks efficiently depending on the time of day, such as producing enzymes to digest food depending on meal times. But few studies have considered the metabolic cost of circadian rhythms in wild animals, in part because they’re so difficult to find. The Mexican tetra, with its surface- and cave-dwelling forms, gives scientists a near-perfect laboratory to study them. This discovery sheds more light on how animals adapt to survive in food-limited environments.
 </p>
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 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/joachim_s_mueller/3365089050">
  Joachim S. Müller/Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND)
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Bridget Morawski