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Building on Ground Zero
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Classroom Activity
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Activity Summary
Students research safety feature and building code changes that were
recommended in response to major disasters, including fire,
hurricanes, and terrorist acts.
Learning Objectives
Students will be able to:
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copy of the "Learning from Disasters" student handout (PDF
or
HTML)
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copy of the "Proposed Changes" student handout (PDF
or
HTML)
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copy of the "Evaluation Card" student handout (PDF
or
HTML)
Background
When a disaster involving a human-made structure occurs, an
investigation is launched to determine what happened. The
investigating team examines the condition of the building prior to
the disaster, the structural integrity of the building, how the
event progressed, how the fire and safety features and procedures
functioned, the evacuation system, how the building's occupants
behaved, and the activities of emergency responders. In this
activity, students research disasters through the eyes of an
investigative team and argue before a panel of judges for the
adoption of safety features or building codes that would be applied
locally, regionally, or nationally.
In the first part of the activity, students work in teams to locate
information on six disasters that led to code revisions. They look
specifically for how each disaster may have impacted recommendations
for safety features or building codes for the area.
In the second part of the activity, students select two suggested
safety feature or building code revisions and argue before a panel
of peer evaluators for the adoption of the selected features or
codes. Student judges will vote to implement or reject the features
or codes based on the strength of the presented arguments.
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Ask students what types of events qualify as major disasters. Do
students think a disaster occurring today might have a lower
loss of life than a similar disaster occurring in the early
1900s? Why or why not?
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Organize students into teams and distribute the "Learning from
Disasters" and "Proposed Changes" student handouts. Explain that
each team will collect data on six disasters that resulted in
proposed changes to existing safety features or building codes.
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To help students identify types of data to collect, create a
class list of elements designed to help prevent human loss
during an emergency. These elements may include type of
construction materials (and their level of flammability), fire
alarms, smoke alarms, sprinklers, number and location of exits,
and evacuation plans.
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Have students collect data outside of class over a one- to
two-week period. (Some Web sites for research are recommended in
the Activity Answer.) After they have
concluded their research, assign or have students choose two
specific safety features or building code changes they would
like to recommend for a building or buildings found locally,
regionally, or nationally (such as office buildings, hotels,
hospitals, movie theaters, stadiums, airports, and residential
homes).
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When students have gathered their information, have them present
their recommendations to the class. Provide each student with a
copy of the "Evaluation Card" student handout. Have all students
list each team being evaluated on a separate sheet of paper and
use the criteria on the "Evaluation Card" handout to rate each
proposed change.
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All students who are not presenting should evaluate the
presenting team. After each team has been evaluated, poll the
students to see how many think the proposed changes should be
adopted and how many do not. Following each evaluation, ask the
class to provide feedback on the stronger and weaker points of
the arguments.
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To conclude the lesson, discuss what students learned. Ask
students to consider the different types of buildings in their
own communities. What kind of safety features and building codes
should apply to the different kinds of buildings found in their
area?
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As an extension, have half the class prepare an argument that
every building should be built for a worst-case scenario, such
as the impact of a jet airliner. Have the other half of the
class argue the counterpoint.
Each disaster listed led to specific safety feature or code
recommendations, several of which were similar and not all of which
were adopted. Students will generally argue for adoption based on
the lives or property that might have been spared had the feature or
code been in place and enforced. Arguments against will range from
cost to the statistical probability of a similar event. A brief
summary of each event and some of the resulting proposed changes are
listed below.
Date: November 28, 1942
Event: Cocoanut Grove Night Club Fire
Location: Boston, Massachusetts
Cocoanut Grove was a fine dinner, music, and dance club. One
evening, a fire swiftly engulfed the club, killing 492 people and
injuring 166 others. This, the deadliest nightclub fire in U.S.
history, led to a nationwide reform of fire codes and safety
features.
When a fire began in a decorative palm tree, patrons panicked and
tried to escape through the one revolving door entrance. The door
became jammed with people and would not operate (the club's maximum
capacity had been exceeded by hundreds). Exit points were limited: a
plate glass window was boarded up, side doors were welded shut, and
the few remaining exits that did operate opened inward, reducing the
evacuation rate. Flammable decorations made it difficult for people
to see the exit signs.
The cause of the fire was not determined. While the club had passed
inspection shortly before the fire, many violations had been
overlooked. The electrician who wired the club was not licensed.
Safety recommendations included:
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banning flammable decoration in Massachusetts public facilities
(nightclubs).
requiring that all fire exit doors open outward. -
calling for owners to not lock or block any fire exit door.
installing always-visible exit signs. -
flanking revolving doors by at least one normal outward-opening
door.
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calling for a review of the way maximum capacity is determined
and enforced.
The Cocoanut Grove Inferno
www.boston.com/news/daily/21/archives_cocoanut_112292.htm
Features a retrospective article on the fire 50 years later.
Date: May 28, 1977
Event: Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire
Location: Southgate, Kentucky
One hundred and sixty-five people died and more than 200 were
injured, making this the third deadliest nightclub fire in U.S.
history. Faulty old aluminum wiring was blamed as the cause. No one
noticed the fire until the blaze was beyond control. The building
had flammable decorations, no audible fire alarms, no sprinkler
system, and no fire doors.
Safety recommendations included:
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increasing the number of available exits and requiring lighted
signs on all exits.
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outlawing unsafe aluminum wiring in locations where it is not
already prohibited.
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requiring that all older nightclubs install sprinkler systems.
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tightening restrictions on nightclubs regarding the use of
flammable decorations and materials that might give off toxic
fumes when burned.
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requiring fire doors on stairways at each level of the building.
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requiring audible fire alarms in all public buildings.
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revamping the way state government agencies supervise code
enforcement.
The Beverly Hills Fire: Tragedy Rooted in Code Violations
www.enquirer.com/beverlyhills/chronology.html
Chronicles the history of the supper club, including information
about the fire.
The Beverly Hills Tragedy
www.cincypost.com/bhfire
Supplies a time line of the fire and factors that contributed to the
high number of deaths.
Date: August 16-29, 1992
Event: Hurricane Andrew
Location: South Florida
This hurricane battered South Florida in late summer of 1992. Damage
estimates of $25 billion made it the third-most expensive disaster
in U.S. history. About 65 people died and 250,000 people were left
homeless. Advance warnings prompted evacuations for southern
Florida, the Florida Keys, Louisiana, and eastern Texas. Winds
reached almost 300 kilometers per hour before the hurricane made
landfall on the Florida coast. Officials credited the low number of
deaths to advance warning and evacuations.
Safety recommendations included:
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requiring that carpenters supplement the nails holding roofs to
walls with metal clips.
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sheathing new buildings entirely in plywood (not just the
lightweight foam insulation previously used) before siding is
put on.
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using more roofing nails and gluing down corner shingles.
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making slight revisions to the regional evacuation plan.
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using more impact-resistant glass and installing bolts around
windows to enable homeowners to more easily install precut
plywood over windows during storms.
New Building Code Brings Cost, Confusion
www.sptimes.com/2002/webspecials02/andrew/day2/story1.shtml
Relates information about building codes that address foundations
and roofs.
Post Andrew Summit Raises Call for Tougher Standards
hurricane.lsu.edu/_in_the_news/june_02_naples.htm
Includes information about codes related to wind damage.
Date: September 11, 2001
Event: World Trade Center Attack
Location: New York City
Hijackers flew two commercial airliners into each of the two
110-story WTC towers. More than 2,700 people died from the attacks,
including more than 400 emergency responders. Nearby buildings also
suffered extensive damage when the two towers collapsed.
The high-speed aircraft inflicted considerable damage on the
structural components of both towers. The towers probably would have
remained standing had the aircraft not dislodged fireproofing
elements; the lost thermal insulation allowed heat from fires to
weaken structural components and lead to collapse.
Safety recommendations included:
improving fire protection of structural members. -
providing backup sprinkler systems (sprinklers, standpipes, and
hoses).
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providing backup systems for fire alarms and smoke management.
improving shielding materials for elevators. -
considering the use of impact-resistant materials around
stairwells.
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widening stairwells and increasing distance between exit
stairways throughout the building.
improving evacuation systems. upgrading emergency communication systems.
Building Standards and Codes: Who Is in Charge?
wtc.nist.gov/pubs/Recommendations.pdf
Provides the National Institute of Technology and Standards'
suggestions for the way buildings are designed, constructed,
maintained, and used as well as for evacuation and emergency
response procedures following the WTC attack.
FEMA Executive Summary
www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema403_execsum.pdf
Summarizes events that occurred at the WTC and explores whether
building codes should be changed to make future buildings more
resistant to attacks.
Date: February 20, 2003
Event: The Station Nightclub Fire
Location: West Warwick, Rhode Island
Ninety-eight people died and more than 180 were injured in the
fourth deadliest nightclub fire in U.S. history. The band on stage
at the time, Great White, lit its own pyrotechnics without a
required city permit, which set off flammable soundproofing
installed behind the stage. There were no fire extinguishers on
stage. Sprinklers were not installed (or required) at the time. The
total number of people may have exceeded maximum capacity. When the
fire began, panic caused a stampede to the door. Though the exits
had signs that were lit, people couldn't see them because of thick
smoke. The club had recently passed inspection after correcting
minor violations.
Safety recommendations included:
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installing sprinkler systems in all new and existing nightclubs.
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tightening restrictions on the use of flammable decorations and
soundproofing materials and pyrotechnics.
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increasing evacuation rates by changing the maximum capacity of
the main exit to accommodate at least two-thirds of the
maximum-allowed occupants.
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eliminating the practice of letting older nightclubs out of
meeting newer code requirements.
requiring redundancy in fire protection systems. -
increasing the number of portable fire extinguishers in
nightclubs.
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increasing fire inspection and code enforcement for new and
existing nightclubs.
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conducting research to better understand how people behave
during emergencies.
At Least 96 Killed in Nightclub Inferno
www.cnn.com/2003/US/Northeast/02/21/deadly.nightclub.fire
Describes the nightclub fire and outlines reasons for the high
number of deaths.
NIST Rhode Island Nightclub Fire Investigation Team Calls for
Improvements
www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/mar_3_05_ribriefing.htm
Reports on safety recommendations issued after the nightclub fire.
Date: August 29, 2005
Event: Hurricane Katrina
Location: Gulf Coast
Hurricane Katrina made landfall as a Category 4 storm. The
362-kilometer-per-hour winds produced a six-meter storm surge that
topped or destroyed the levee and flood wall system protecting the
city. Death tolls vary but current figures are about 1,800. Damage
from the storm could be $75 billion or more.
Safety recommendations included:
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implementing and enforcing the International Building and
Residential Codes wind and flood provisions that require homes
and businesses built along the Gulf Coast to withstand winds of
210 to 240 kilometers per hour.
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installing metal strapping from a building's foundation to its
rooftop to hold each roof in place.
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building most new multifamily dwellings, such as condominiums,
over a parking garage.
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reinforcing corners of structures with double-nailed shingles
and installing impact-resistant windows with a plastic
interlayer to prevent shattering.
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adopting codes similar to Dade County, Florida (neither
Mississippi nor Louisiana had uniform state building codes).
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considering redrawing the floodplain maps to increase the
elevation for homes from 4 meters above the likely flood level
to 5.5 to 7.5 meters.
Rebuilding a Culture of Safety on the Gulf Coast
www.iccsafe.org/news/bsj/0406_rebuilding.pdf
Reports on the types of damage caused by Katrina and includes
information on the importance of strict building code requirements.
Residential Wind Damage in Hurricane Katrina
www.hurricane.lsu.edu/files/katrinafinal.pdf
Discusses how effective four building improvements—opening
protection, straps/clips, upgraded roof deck, and secondary
waterproofing—would have been had they been in place when
Katrina hit. In this report, the four improvements are called
"mitigating options."
Web Sites
NOVA—Building on Ground Zero
www.pbs.org/nova/wtc
Learn why the towers were innovative and what led to their collapse,
read one survivor's story, outfit a firefighter, explore the atomic
structure of metal, and more.
Engineering Practice
www.onlineethics.org/eng/index.html
Contains cases, discussions, and ethical guidelines bearing on the
professional responsibilities of engineers.
Cities and Buildings Database
content.lib.washington.edu/buildingsweb/index.html
Offers a searchable collection of images of buildings worldwide.
SkyscraperPage
www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams
Provides diagrams of skyscrapers and a searchable diagram and
statistics database of skyscrapers worldwide.
Books
The Art of Construction
by Mario Salvadori. Chicago Review Press, 1990.
Explains how structures are built and describes how to build models
using common materials.
Spiderwebs to Skyscrapers: The Science of Structures
by David Darling. Dillon Press, 1991.
Includes hands-on activities that explore foundations, materials,
arches, and structures.
The Visual Dictionary of Buildings
by Fiona Courtenay-Thompson and Roger Tritton. Dorling Kindersley,
1993.
Provides structural details of buildings from many locations in the
world.
Why Buildings Fall Down: How Structures Fail
by Matthys Levy and Mario Salvadori. W.W. Norton & Company,
2002.
Uses case studies to illustrate why structures like buildings,
bridges, and dams have sometimes failed.
The "Learning from Disasters" activity aligns with the following
National Science Education Standards (see
books.nap.edu/html/nses).
Grades 5-8
Science Standard F
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
Personal health
Risks and benefits
Grades 9-12
Science Standard F
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
Personal and community health
Mathematics Standard
Statistics
Classroom Activity Author
A teacher for 25 years, Shannon C'de Baca teaches and serves as a
consultant for national and state agencies working to improve
science teaching. Her teaching practices have been recognized with
national awards from the Milken Family Foundation and the National
Science Teachers Association.
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