Evolution Library: Topic Page

Human Evolution

Bipedalism | Brain size, language, and social behavior | Primates | Tool use

The human species shares a common genetic code with all other life on this planet, and many of our basic traits are a heritage from the long evolutionary history that took place before the human lineage branched off from the apes around 6 million years ago. Yet we also have our own set of uniquely human adaptations. Explore these resources for more about the evolution of humans and our closest relatives, the other primates.

Featured Multimedia Resources

Steven Pinker: Evolution of the Mind Read the transcript of an interview with Steven Pinker that was filmed for Evolution: "The Mind's Big Bang." Resource Type: Interview	Origins of Humankind Examine an 8-million-year-old fossil record to learn about the evolution of the human family. Resource Type: Web Activity	Is Love in Our DNA? Did evolution shape your taste in a mate? Take our poll. Resource Type: Web Activity

Bipedalism
	Resource	Type	Format	Topics Covered

	Origins of Humankind Examine an 8-million-year-old fossil record to learn about the evolution of the human family.	Web Activity	Flash get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Finding Lucy This video segment depicts the landmark hominid fossil finds by Don Johanson and his team in Ethiopia.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Laetoli Footprints This video segment describes how the famous track fossils known as the Laetoli footprints might have been formed and what they can reveal about the creatures who left them.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Walking Tall This video segment from Evolution: "Great Transformations" illustrates the differences between the skeletons of a chimpanzee (a knuckle-walker) and a human (a biped).	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Laetoli Trackways Diagram View a diagram of the hominid footprints that archaeologist Mary Leakey's team found at Laetoli in Tanzania.	Image	Graphic	Human Evolution

	The Transforming Leap, from Four Legs to Two John Noble Wilford, a New York Times science writer, outlines various hypotheses on the origin of bipedalism.	Document	Text	Human Evolution

	Becoming Human: Paleoanthropology, Evolution and Human Origins Beautifully illustrated by paleoartist John Gurche, this site presents "the story of human evolution in a broadband documentary experience." Users can examine fossil evidence, compare hominid anatomies, and study cultural milestones. The site also offers the latest news and debates in paleoanthropology, as well as a comprehensive resource and Web guide. Presented by the Institute of Human Origins.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews This review journal is an excellent source of articles synthesizing the current understanding of a range of topics relevant to human evolution. The site allows users to browse the table of contents for issues from 1996-2001 online at no cost. Access to full-text articles requires either a subscription or a trip to the library to seek out the print edition. Hosted by Wiley InterScience.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Fossil Hominids: The Evidence for Human Evolution This site summarizes the current scientific thinking about human evolution and presents the fossil evidence (including an illustrated timeline) and an extensive bibliography. Hosted by Talk.Origins.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Human Evolution, an Encarta Encyclopedia Article This illustrated encyclopedia article has a clear outline, with topics ranging from parental care to "The Origins and Fate of Late Australopiths."	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Institute of Human Origins The Institute of Human Origins, a non-profit, multidisciplinary research organization affiliated with Arizona State University, is dedicated to the recovery and analysis of the fossil evidence for human evolution.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The Human Origins Program A work-in-progress, this site's "Hall of Human Ancestors" offers QTVR movies of fossil skulls in the Smithsonian's collection. Hosted by the Smithsonian Institution.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Bipedalism and Human Birth: The Obstetrical Dilemma Revisited This article explores how the human birth process is unique among primates, the result of a compromise between a pelvis adapted to bipedal walking and a skull large enough to accommodate the human brain. By K. Rosenberg and W. Trevathan [Evolutionary Anthropology 4, no. 5 (1996): 161-168].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	From Lucy to Language This large-format book by science writer Edgar and paleoanthropologist Johanson -- discoverer of the famous partial skeleton of Lucy, a female hominid who lived 3.2 million years ago -- gives as complete a picture of human evolution as is presently known. By Donald C. Johanson and Blake Edgar [New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	How Humans Evolved This book is a comprehensive introduction to the study of biological anthropology. By Robert Boyd and Joan B. Silk [New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2000].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction, 4th ed. This comprehensive and highly accessible textbook offers, among many things, a full treatment of modern evolutionary theory and extensive coverage of recent advances in molecular and morphological systematics. By Roger Lewin [Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 1999].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Lucy's Legacy: Sex and Intelligence in Human Evolution This book provides a review and analysis of modern sociobiology, applied to human evolution in the broadest sense. By Alison Jolly [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human This book is Richard Leakey's personal account of his career in paleoanthropology. In it, he reviews his achievements, honestly assesses his beliefs, and examines human language development. By Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin [New York: Doubleday, 1992].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution This collection of essays by more than 70 scholars covers a wide range of topics, from genetics to brain function and behavior to the increasing convergence of the fossil and genetic evidence for human evolution. By Steve Jones, Robert Martin, and David Pilbeam [New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind In this book, the authors describe the history of human evolution and project how human behavior will impact life on this planet. By Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin [New York: Doubleday, 1996].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

Brain size, language, and social behavior
	Resource	Type	Format	Topics Covered

	Is Love in Our DNA? Did evolution shape your taste in a mate? Take our poll.	Web Activity	Web Activity	Human Evolution

	Steven Pinker: Evolution of the Mind Read the transcript of an interview with Steven Pinker that was filmed for Evolution: "The Mind's Big Bang."	Interview	Text	Human Evolution

	Birth of a Language This segment from Evolution: "The Mind's Big Bang" chronicles the emergence of a new language among deaf children in Nicaragua in the 1980s.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Cave Art This animated slide show portrays the Lascaux cave paintings.	Image	Graphic	Human Evolution

	Susan Blackmore: Memetic Evolution In this interview excerpt from Evolution: "The Mind's Big Bang," British psychologist Susan Blackmore talks about her theory of memetic evolution, which explains how beliefs, ideas, and stories are selected and passed down.	Interview	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Hominoid Cranium Comparison This site uses detailed drawings of fossil skulls from seven different hominoid species, with a checklist of features to compare for similarities and differences, to illustrate evolutionary concepts and relationships.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Apes, Language, and the Human Mind In this book, leading ape researchers describe their experiences teaching a bonobo to communicate and challenges what is currently believed about the cognitive abilities of nonhuman primates. By Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, Stuart G. Shanker, and Talbot J. Taylor [New York: Oxford University Press, 1998].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Apocalypse Then This article describes genetic research by the University of California, San Diego, that suggests how early humans almost became extinct. By Martin Brookes [New Scientist, 14 August 1999, 32-37].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Archaeological Evidence for and Early Appearance of Behavioral Modernity in Subsaharan Africa This article argues that traces of the modern cultural behavior that appeared relatively suddenly in Europe about 50,000 years ago can be seen much earlier in the African archaeological record. By Sally McBrearty and Alison Brooks [Journal of Human Evolution 30 (2000): 454-563].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Balancing Tools and Language on the Head This paper focuses on the cognitive foundations of human versus ape tool-making, language, and social intelligence. By K.R. Gibson [American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2001)].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness This book examines the evolution of human intelligence by looking at both our living relatives and the evidence left behind by our extinct ones. By Ian Tattersall [New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1998].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Evolutionary Psychology This article discusses evolutionary psychology, with a focus on the comparative evolutionary history of behaviors, psychological mechanisms, and natural selection. By D. Jones [Annual Review of Anthropology (1999): 553-577].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	How the Mind Works This book offers a sophisticated and comprehensive discussion of cognitive science followed by a general review of sociobiology. By Steven Pinker. [New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1997].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man This book offers an illustrated history of paleoanthropology. By John Reader [Boston: Little, Brown, 1981].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. This books offers a detailed survey of living primates and a current synopsis of the primate fossil record. By John G. Fleagle [San Diego: Academic Press, 1999].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Adoption Paradox This article discusses the social and evolutionary aspects of adoption. By E. Eisenberg [Discover, January 2001].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins This book is the definitive text on hominid evolution. Accessible and thoroughly illustrated, The Human Career chronicles the evolution of people from the earliest primates through the emergence of fully modern humans within the past 200,000 years. By Richard G. Klein [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Language Instinct In this book, the author asserts that language is an innate competence of the individual, not solely a construct of the society or culture. By Steven Pinker [New York: W. Morrow, 1994].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain In this book, a leading researcher in the fields of neuroscience and evolutionary anthropology argues that the evolution of language did not simply arise out of a larger or more complex brain, but rather that language emerged out of a new way of thinking that he terms "symbolic thinking." By Terrence W. Deacon [New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1997].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Who Were the Neandertals? This article explains how according to fossil evidence, Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons existed on the same soil in Europe and the Middle East for at least 10,000 years. Further, the two human species seemingly lived in peace. By Kate Wong [ Scientific American, April 2000, 98].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

Primates
	Resource	Type	Format	Topics Covered

	Chimps And Bonobos This segment from Evolution: "Why Sex?" looks at the dissimilar social organization of chimpanzees and a closely related species called bonobos.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Evolving Ideas: Did Humans Evolve? This video for high school students explores the evolution of humans from a common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees, and other apes.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Jane Goodall In this interview conducted for the Evolution project, Dr. Jane Goodall describes the search for insights into behaviors of early humans. The background text excerpts Goodall and Phillip Berman's book Reason for Hope.	Video	QuickTime or RealPlayer get plug-in	Human Evolution

	Early Humans This graphic illustrates the modern-looking anatomy of the Nariokotome boy, a 1.8-million-year-old fossil skeleton named for the locality where it was found, near Lake Turkana in Kenya.	Image	Graphic	Human Evolution

	Tracing Human Evolution to its Roots This graphic suggests how some recent hominid fossil finds might fit into the overall picture of hominid evolution. As more fossils are found and further analysis advances our understanding of human evolution, this picture will almost certainly be revised.	Image	Graphic	Human Evolution

	Jean-Jacques Hublin: Who Were the Neanderthals? In this interview transcript from Evolution: "The Mind's Big Bang," anthropologist Jean-Jacques Hublin discusses Neanderthal life, customs, and extinction.	Interview	Text	Human Evolution

	Liza Shapiro: Primate Locomotion In this interview filmed for Evolution: "Great Transformations," Dr. Shapiro discusses her research on primate locomotion and its relationship to human evolution and interpreting the fossil record.	Interview	Text	Human Evolution

	The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White This article describes research by Nina Jablonski which suggests that the differences in skin color between different human populations could simply be a way to ensure we all get our vitamins.	Document	Text	Human Evolution

	You Try It: Human Evolution This activity from the PBS Web site A Science Odyssey shows the major hominid (human or humanlike) species discovered to date, when they lived, and how they might be related to each other. Hosted by PBS.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	African Primates at Home This site contains sounds, pictures, and life information of primates in Africa. Hosted by Indiana University.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Anthropology Tutorials This site offers a very comprehensive, up-to-date resource with more than 20 tutorials, complete with photos and illustrations, on both physical and cultural anthropology. Hosted by Palomar College.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Gorilla Foundation - Koko the Gorilla This organization promotes the protection, preservation, and propagation of gorillas. Project Koko, a primary focus of TGF/Koko.org, involves teaching a modified form of American Sign Language to two lowland gorillas, Koko and Michael.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Human Evolution: The Fossil Evidence in 3D This site contains an impressive online 3-D gallery of modern primates and human fossil ancestors. Created by Phillip Walker and Edward Hagen of the University of California, Santa Barbara.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	NetVet: Primates This site offers an extensive links list for everything related to primates and primatology. Hosted by Washington University in St. Louis.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Orangutans: Just Hangin' On This Nature site offers information on what's being done to save the wild orangutan and learn about this animal's startling intelligence. Hosted by PBS.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Paleoanthropology Society Founded in 1992 and run on an informal basis, the Paleoanthropology Society brings together researchers working in the field of hominid behavioral and biological evolution. The Society's Web site lists current job and field work opportunities and offers abstracts of papers presented at the Society's annual conference.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Paleoanthropology: Hominid Family History This site provides an overview of human evolution, with links to photos of fossil skulls and articles about recent research. Hosted by the University of California, Santa Barbara.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute (CHCI) The Institute cares for a unique family of five chimpanzees who have acquired the signs of American Sign Language (ASL) and use those signs in conversations with each other and with their human companions. Hosted by Central Washington University.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International Dedicated to the conservation and protection of gorillas and their habitat in Africa, the DFGFI is committed to promoting continued research on gorillas' threatened ecosystems and education about their relevance to the world in which we live.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The Jane Goodall Institute The Jane Goodall Institute advances the power of individuals to take informed and compassionate action to improve the environment of all living things.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The Leakey Foundation Named for Louis S.B. Leakey, one of the century's great anthropologists, the Leakey Foundation funds scientific field research into human origins worldwide.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center Library Audiovisual Archive This site contains a large collection of images, slide shows, and a bibliography of "primates in films." Hosted by the University of Wisconsin.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy This book is an excellent combination of anthropology and anatomy, featuring illustrations by Joanna Cameron. By Lesle Aiello and Christopher Dean [London: Academic Press, 1990].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Good Natured: The Evolution of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals In this book, a primatologist makes a case that the moral sentiments we identify as human are evolutionary products which also exist in apes and other large-brained mammals. By Frans B.M. de Waal [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Human Osteology, 2nd ed. Written for advanced students and researchers, this text provides clearly annotated illustrations and photographs to help readers accurately identify human skeletal remains. By Timothy D. White [New York: Academic Press, 1999].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Machiavellian Intelligence II: Extensions and Evaluations Building upon Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes, and Humans, this book suggests that the evolutionary roots of higher intelligence are linked to a dynamic social environment. Edited by Richard W. Byrne and Andrew Whiten [Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1988].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Primate Societies This book provides a comprehensive treatment with wide focus on the evolution, sociobiology, group life, and communication and intelligence in primate societies. Edited by Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker [Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know About Human Evolution In this book, the head of the anthropology department at the American Museum of Natural History reviews the study of human evolution and examines how fossil discoveries have been interpreted -- and misinterpreted -- over time. By Ian Tattersall [New York: Oxford University Press, 1995].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates This book is a photographic field guide containing exhaustive identification, habitat, distribution, and conservation status data for 234 species of primates. Lavish cross-references. By Noel Rowe [East Hampton, N.Y.: Pogonias Press, 1996].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

Tool use
	Resource	Type	Format	Topics Covered

	Dexterity and Early Tools These two sets of diagrams show examples of early stone tools and the changes in hand anatomy that enabled our human ancestors to fashion and use such tools.	Image	Graphic	Human Evolution

	Earliest Evidence of Animal Butchery, New Species of Human Ancestor, Found in Ethiopia's Afar Desert This site presents a good outline of the discovery of Australopithecus garhi and its significance. Hosted by the University of California, Berkeley.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Pass the Termites, Please This brief article discusses the nutitional value of termites -- and evidence that early hominids used special bone tools to collect them. Hosted by the Biological Research Information Center of Korea.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Science Hotline: Mary Marzke This Scientific American Frontiers site offers a question-and-answer session with anthropologist Dr. Mary Marzke, whose research suggests that prehistoric tool use and tool making were important factors in the evolution of our distinctively human hand and upright posture. Hosted by PBS.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	The First Butcher This article by Michael D. Lemonick, originally published in Time on May 3, 1999, describes the discovery of Australopithecus garhi and associated evidence for use of tools use to obtain meat. Hosted by Bellarmine University.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	What Can You Do With a Bone Fragment? In this article, Pat Shipman describes research indicating that early hominids in South Africa used bone tools to collect termites, a rich source of protein and fat. The evidence comes from wear patterns on tools found at sites dating from more than 1.1 million years ago. Hosted by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.	External Link	HTML	Human Evolution

	Giving Sherry a Hand: Tools and the Evolution of the Human Hand This article, intended for advanced students of evolution, describes new techniques for identifying features that distinguish living and fossil hands. The thumb and fifth finger are fundamental to distinctive human grips used in prehistoric tool activities. By Mary W. Marzke [American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2001): 103].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	Stone Legacy of Skilled Hands This article discusses a reconstruction of prehistoric stone-working techniques, and the use of imaging techniques to identify hand muscles essential for the manufacture of Oldowan tools. By James Steele [Nature 399 (6 May 1999): 24-25].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution

	We Are What We Ate This article discusses a hypothesis that systematically exploiting underground tubers as a food source may have given some early hominids a competitive edge. Some of the earliest stone tools may have been used to make digging sticks, the authors suggest. By Bernard Wood and Alison Brooks. [Nature 400, (15 July 1999) 219-220].	Other Resources	Print	Human Evolution