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Rome's skillful generals and loyal army helped turn the city-state into a world power. Learn how the army's victories made Rome one of the greatest empires in history.
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A scene from Trajan's Column, a monument to Trajan's victory over the Dacians.
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Upon its independence from the Etruscans in 509 BC, Rome and its neighboring city-states battled for supremacy over the Latium region in central Italy. The growth of the army from 4,000 to 6,000 soldiers helped Rome recover from a devastating attack by the Gauls in 309 BC; enough to defeat its neighbors for full control of Latium in 338 BC. After crushing the Samnites 19 years later, Rome took total control of the central Italian peninsula.
To further consolidate its power, Rome moved southwards to Greek cities, and used a new battle tactic to overpower its enemies. The Greek cities recruited the help of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, a famous commander skilled in phalanx warfare -- a battle order comprised of a single compact fighting unit. The Roman army discarded the phalanx in favor of maniples -- subunits capable of flexible open order fighting. Although Pyrrhus won many large battles, he lost too many of his men (thus the phrase "Pyrrhic victory"). In the end, the manipular tactics of the Roman army overwhelmed the phalanx and Pyrrhus was forced to retreat to Greece. In 272 BC, the Greek city of Tarentum surrendered to Rome.
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Rome controlled all of Italy by 272 BC.
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With the Italian peninsula under its rule, Rome began to expand its borders into the Mediterranean basin, and as a result, clashed with Carthage, a former Phoenician state in control of North Africa, southern Spain, Corsica and Sardinia. In 264 BC, fighting broke out between the two great powers for control of the island of Sicily. The inexperienced Roman navy invented a boarding bridge and then relied on the legionaries to rush enemy ships and fight in hand-to-hand combat. After a decisive victory off the west coast of Sicily, the island became Rome's first overseas province. Later, Rome took advantage of Carthage's weakness to seize Corsica and Sardinia.
Thirty years later Carthage and Rome clashed again, this time over Spain.
In 218 BC, Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, defied Rome's demand to leave the small Spanish city he had invaded and instead, marched across the Alps to invade Italy. With the help of Gauls, Hannibal was able to annihilate the Romans in Cannae where 50,000 Roman soldiers died -- the greatest military disaster in Roman history. But Rome, which required all its territories to provide troops, had the ability to continually replace its armies. This advantage, along with a new focus on training, helped Rome recover to defeat Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in Africa in 202 BC. After Hannibal's ally Macedonia was vanquished in 149 BC and Carthage transformed into a province three years later, Roman supremacy over the Mediterranean became indisputable.
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Rome added Spain, Carthage, Greece, and Macedonia after the Punic and Macedonian Wars.
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In 58 BC, Julius Caesar was appointed governor of the Gaul provinces in modern day northern Italy. Eager to expand the boundaries of his provinces, Caesar embarked on a campaign of conquest. By this time, the Roman army was comprised of professional soldiers who viewed service as a career rather than a duty to Rome. Governors were also given authority over recruitment, which gave Caesar free reign over the number of soldiers he commanded. With these career soldiers, Caesar was able to defeat the peoples of Gaul and acquire territory in what is now France and Belgium. Caesar also led celebrated forays into Britain, which had given aid to the Gauls.
Upon his return to Gaul, Caesar was faced with a massive revolt led by a young Gallic chieftain, Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix had some successes -- he was able to repel Caesar at the hill town of Gergovia. But when Vercingetorix opted for direct confrontation, the highly skilled legionaries forced the Gallic army to retreat to the fortified hill town of Alesia. Caesar surrounded the fort with two deadly trenches: a ring to surround Vercingetorix and an outer ring to defend against any attacks from Gallic relief forces. Although siege works had been used in the past, this double ring fortification was so elaborate and effective that Caesar, with his 45,000 men was able to defeat the relief army of 250,000 men. Vercingtorix had no choice but to surrender. The whole of Gaul was now conquered.
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By 45 BC, the Roman Empire included Egypt and what is now France and Belgium.
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Caesar's assassination in 44 BC resulted in a power struggle that would eventually place Octavian, Caesar's nephew, on the throne of a newly established Roman Empire. The fight for control culminated in 31 BC at the Battle of Actium, when Octavian defeated Marc Anthony and his mistress, Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Octavian, who would be proclaimed Emperor Augustus, added Egypt to Rome's territorial possessions, and later all of Spain and Germany.
Instead of demobilizing his forces after the end of the hostilities, Augustus sent legions to secure the borders of farflung provinces and protect the empire's land gains. Augustus increased the Roman soldier's term of service from six to 20 years, with an additional minimum of five years in reserve. The army was now not only a career, but an occupation for a lifetime. With these changes in the army, Augustus ushered in a time of peace and prosperity.
At his death, Augustus had advised his successors to stop Rome's expansion for fear that the empire would become too large to govern. They did not heed his advice. With a new battle order -- involving cohorts containing six centuries of 80 men each -- Rome would further expand. Augustus' nephew, Claudius, organized a formidable force that successfully invaded Britain almost 100 years after Caesar's expedition. Emperor Trajan, a highly skilled general, also disregarded Augustus' recommendations and pursued aggressive military campaigns. In 103 AD, Trajan crushed the Dacians of the Danube region and erected a monument in Rome called Trajan's Column to celebrate his victory. Before Trajan's death in 117 AD, Mesopotamia and Assyria had also been added to the collection of territories. Although the empire would continue to exist for several more centuries, Rome was now at its largest extent.
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The Empire was at its largest extent after Britain, Assyria, and Mesopotamia were conquered.
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