CHRIS ANDERSON: Hey, everyone, my name is Chris Anderson, and today on Science Around Cincy we're going to learn how living and non-living things interact in the ecosystem.

(music) Frogs are one of nature's coolest amphibians.

They're an important part of local ecosystems and they help people by keeping insect populations from getting out of control.

But did you know they also have an amazing adaptation to get through the winter?

They actually freeze solid, which is why I went over to Mount St. Joseph University, where Dr. Clara Do Amaral researches how frogs are able to do this.

DR. CLARA DO AMARAL: So, hi, my name is Clara Do Amaral and I'm an assistant professor at Mount St. Joseph University.

So there are certain species of frogs that overwinter in places where their body temperature closely follows the temperature of winter.

So when it gets low enough, the animal may actually freeze.

So I joined this lab for my PhD that worked in freeze tolerant animals.

And I just thought it was a really interesting problem.

I had never heard about it until recently at that time.

And so I started working with them and it was just so fascinating.

It was such a fascinating physiological response, like I'd never seen anything like that.

And it's just so, so cool.

You know?

There's all of these different genetic and physiological specific features that they have and I just thought it was the coolest thing ever.

CHRIS: Hey, Clara.

DR. CLARA: Hey.

CHRIS: How are you?

DR. CLARA: Good.

How are you?

CHRIS: It's good to see you.

DR. CLARA: Good to see you.

CHRIS: So how in the world are frogs able to freeze solid and still survive?

DR. CLARA DO AMARAL: Great question.

So there's a series of adaptations that they have that allow them to do that.

So first of all, they are pretty good at surviving low temperatures in general.

They also do fairly well with a lot of dehydration.

So they can basically lose about half of their body water and still survive.

And not only that, but they also can survive like a week without oxygen.

So there's all of these things that they're naturally capable of doing.

And then on top of all of that, they produce these chemicals that we call cryoprotectants.

CHRIS: Cryoprotectants?

DR. CLARA: Yes, and so these are compounds found in their blood that help to basically minimize the damage caused by freezing.

CHRIS ANDERSON: So they're kind of like antifreeze.

DR. CLARA: Yes, kind of antifreeze.

You still have ice forming, but you have less ice than you normally would have.

CHRIS: Okay.

DR. CLARA: And not only that, but these chemicals also protect proteins in the cells and the membranes of the cells.

CHRIS: So when the spring comes around and the weather gets warmer, they just kind of defrost?

DR. CLARA: Yeah.

So technically speaking, the temperature of the ground, at least here in Ohio, is not like always below freezing.

So even during winter, you have some warmer days and cooler days.

And so they're probably just like staying frozen for a couple of days, and then thawing and then staying frozen again and then thawing.

But yes, when spring comes and the temperature warms enough, then they will just permanently thaw and then they will hop on and do their frog's life.

CHRIS: So -- what does that mean for people?

Like if frogs can freeze, how does that affect everyday people like you and me?

DR. CLARA: Right.

So, basically this work, we do this work to understand how these frogs actually can do it.

And so the idea is, if we can understand all the responses associated with being freeze tolerant, you can maybe extrapolate that not to freeze a whole human but -- Right?

But maybe you can take some of that and learn how to cryopreserved organs.

Right?

That's something that we, right now you can't just take a heart and freeze it and then thaw it whenever you want to use it, it doesn't work like that.

CHRIS: There's a lot of people who need organ transplants; that could really help them.

DR. CLARA: Exactly.

So, if we can find a way to basically cold store these organs for longer, and using some of the strategies these animals are using, that may be a way in which this research can actually benefit humans in general.

CHRIS: That's really cool.

Do you have any specimens we can look at?

DR. CLARA DO AMARAL: Yes, I do, actually.

CHRIS ANDERSON: All right.

Oh, my gosh.

That frog is completely frozen.

DR. CLARA: Yeah, so you don't have any heartbeat.

The animal is not breathing, as you can see, it's not moving.

And you don't even have brain activity.

So it's like flatlined, it's dead for all intents and purposes.

CHRIS: Yeah.

DR. CLARA: Except for that when it thaws, it's alive.

CHRIS: Yeah.

It looks like -- it's -- like its limbs are swollen almost.

DR. CLARA: Yeah.

So, when water freezes it expands.

And so what you're seeing is a lot of the water actually leaves the organs when the animal is slowly freezing and pools in certain places in the body, like the body cavity and to some extent the limbs.

And so they look swollen because the ice is expanding and so it kind of makes it look a little bit bulging.

CHRIS: That's cool.

DR. CLARA: When it thaws, the water then goes back to the normal places and it will look like a normal frog again.

CHRIS: What species of frog is this?

DR. CLARA: This is a wood frog.

So you find these, you know, in basically North America.

The United States, also Canada, all the way up to the north of the Arctic Circle.

CHRIS: Oh, wow.

DR. CLARA: Yeah.

CHRIS: So frogs in different areas have different adaptations for how cold it gets.

DR. CLARA: Yes.

So, basically there is the frogs from northern places like Alaska are more freeze tolerant than frogs from southern places like Ohio, absolutely.

CHRIS: Gotcha, that's so cool.

And so what time of year do these guys start waking up?

DR. CLARA: So it depends.

They are one of the first frogs to wake up during spring, early spring.

So something like a wood frog would be waking up mid-February to mid-March.

And again, it just -- it matches when temperatures are slightly higher and there's usually some warm winds and we see them coming out then.

CHRIS: So, how do you get these specimens?

Like, how do you go about getting them in the field?

DR. CLARA: Right.

So you pay close attention to the weather.

And then when it looks like a warm night and mid February, you basically drive around specific locations.

So these are not found around cities.

They're found usually in wooded areas.

They preferentially come out during these times to go mating.

So you're looking basically for something like a temporary pond, like a vernal pool of sorts.

And so you basically drive around and what you're listening for is their calling.

So the males will call, and so that's a sign that the animals are there.

And so that's basically what I do.

When the time comes for specific places that they're more likely to be found, historically speaking.

And so then we drive around and look for them.

CHRIS: So, are you guys going any time soon to go check out any frogs?

DR. CLARA: Yes.

As soon as it's a little bit warmer and some rain, we are going to go out and look for some tree frogs.

CHRIS: That sounds awesome.

DR. CLARA: Do you want to come along?

CHRIS: I would love to come along.

All right.

DR. CLARA: That's a tree frog.

CHRIS: That's it.

>> All right.

CHRIS: Oh, boy.

Got it.

All right, so let me put her back.

Well, that was awesome.

DR. CLARA: I'm glad you had fun.

That's fun.

CHRIS: I can't believe that your job, you get to go out into the middle of the forest and catch frogs.

DR. CLARA: Absolutely.

Yeah.

CHRIS: So one of the questions I have is: how is climate change affecting these frogs?

What's going on with their populations?

DR. CLARA: Right.

So, it really depends on which populations we're talking about.

But if we're talking about again, I study frogs that survive the winter by being frozen.

And so these frogs have evolved to basically be exposed to these low temperatures.

And so what we see is if winters start to get milder, these frogs run out of their energy stores sooner and they're actually not able to survive a complete length of winter.

CHRIS: So if they wake up too soon, there's no food for them to eat?

DR. CLARA: Exactly, and so there's no food for them to eat, they run out of energy until they basically die.

CHRIS: Well, thank you so much for taking me out here tonight.

DR. CLARA: You're welcome.

CHRIS: It was so much fun and letting us tell your story about your work and the awesome things you're doing, learning about how frogs are able to do -- have this amazing adaptation.

It's really, really cool.

The Cincinnati Nature Center is home to some of the best hiking trails in the tri state, but they're also doing great work combating invasive species and helping native plants thrive.

Dr. Cory Christopher is the naturalist at the nature center and he's going to teach us a little bit how we can protect local ecosystems.

CORY CHRISTOPHER: So, I am Cory Christopher and I'm the Director of the Center for Conservation at the Cincinnati Nature Center.

So, I get to oversee our land management practices, as well as our Education Department.

So, I get to do a little bit of playing in the woods, restoration of prairies, looking at sort of those best management practices for restoration.

So the first -- there's a singular moment that I can talk about.

It's a little planet called Trillium.

They're a variety of species, and I grew up in Georgia.

And Georgia is sort of the epicenter of Trillium diversity.

And one day in the woods I found a nodding Trillium.

It's this little plant, three leaves, and the flower sort of looks at the ground.

And it was just a weird plant.

I was about nine, I think, and I was enamored because I had never seen anything like this before.

Suddenly it's like, you know, my friends were looking at Star Wars and Star Trek, and I'm thinking this is a lot weirder than any of that.

And that that singular moment, that singular -- I can remember it vividly, seeing that one Trillium in the woods, set me into this trajectory of where now, everything I see, I want to know why does it look like that?

What does it do?

What does it do in its community?

CHRIS: Hey, Corey.

CORY: Hi.

CHRIS: How's it going?

CORY: Pretty good.

How are you doing?

CHRIS: I'm great.

So tell me a little bit about invasive species.

What are they?

CORY: Invasive species are exotic plants or exotic animals that didn't evolve in an area, but have been brought in through typically human mediation.

So gardening, even ballasts of ships, things like that.

CHRIS: Okay.

Why are they such a problem and why are they such a problem here in Ohio?

CORY: So invasive species are a problem in general because they didn't evolve in those areas.

And so a lot of the natural means for keeping their populations in check just don't exist.

So things like herbivores, even competition with other plants, those things aren't there to keep their populations in check, which means their populations get out of hand, they start outcompeting the natives.

And because of that, you end up with reduced native biodiversity and then the whole system sort of falls apart.

CHRIS: So they're like really bad houseguests.

CORY: They're incredibly bad houseguests that overstay their welcome and really messy rooms and kitchen behind them.

CHRIS: So what kind of invasive species are affecting our area here in Cincinnati?

CORY: We have a few.

So, I would say that the honeysuckle, the bush honeysuckle is a big problem here.

The Midwest is a little sort of depopulate in shrubs.

We just don't have that many shrub species.

So when Honeysuckle came here, it was kind of a field day, almost an open nitch.

Suddenly there is not a lot of other shrubs, so it didn't have a lot of competition.

We also deal with things like oriental bittersweet, which is a vine with these beautiful red berries that are really popular for people around Christmastime.

And we now have them growing up our trees, and we have to go and cut them down.

CHRIS: You mention honeysuckle.

CORY: Yep.

CHRIS: Why are they here in Ohio?

How did they get here?

What's going on with that?

CORY: So Ohio, I think, is a pretty good sample of the rest of the country.

We tend to be a very sort of European country in terms of our esthetics for landscape.

So it was sort of considered an interesting garden if you had species that no one else had.

So suddenly you bring in plants like amur Honeysuckle, which is from North-Eastern Asia, and you're showing off this beautiful shrub.

But what they didn't know was that their shrubs are going to take off and suddenly invade native areas that they had never been introduced to.

CHRIS: Now, you guys do have a lot of projects with native plants, right?

CORY: We do.

So we -- it's one of the most exciting things we've ever done.

We just started a native plant propagation program.

CHRIS: Okay.

CORY: So this program, the aim is really to increase the accessibility of native plants in our region, both so that we can use those plants on our site for restoration.

We can share them with other organizational partners in the area to use for their restoration efforts.

CHRIS: Right.

CORY: And we can sell them to the public, so that the plants you buy from us are not only native, but they evolved here, literally where we're standing.

CHRIS: Right on the property.

CORY: Right on this property, so you know when you put it in your yard, it is locally appropriate for your yard.

CHRIS: So, you guys have a whole green house just for native plants?

CORY: We do.

CHRIS: That's awesome.

Can we check it out?

CORY: Yeah, definitely.

CHRIS: Awesome.

Let's go.

We're in the greenhouse.

CORY: We are.

CHRIS: This is awesome.

You guys have so many plants here.

How many species do you guys have?

CORY: Actually in cultivation right now being propagated, somewhere around, probably a little over a hundred.

CHRIS: Wow.

CORY: It's hard to keep track because it seems like we're always adding some to the list.

CHRIS: This is awesome.

What kind of species do we have here in front of us?

CORY: So some of my favorites actually.

So this is Partridge Pea.

CHRIS: Oh, wow.

CORY: It's got this really beautiful pink bloom.

It's really great for for fields because it actually nitrifies the soil.

It's a pea, so it's actually adding nitrogen, it's fertilizing the soil.

CHRIS: Oh, that's awesome.

CORY: Yeah.

And so it's one of my favorites because not only does it have this beautiful bloom, but it plays this important ecosystem service.

CHRIS: It's probably really good for other plants too.

CORY: It's fantastic for other plants.

One of my favorite shrubs is the ever popular spicebush.

It's -- the reason I like this so much is a lot of the shrubs like honeysuckle or autumn olive that's invasive that come in, it's hard to find something to replace those with.

This is a great option for replacing those invasives so that if you get to stand of spicebush, it's going to prevent some of those invasives from coming in because it's going to be a little too much competition for them.

CHRIS: So if I'm a homeowner, what's the advantage of having more native plants instead of just a regular lawn?

CORY: If you're like me, I love gardening, but I'm a lazy gardener.

I don't like doing the weeding.

I don't want to mow.

I don't want to have to water all the time.

CHRIS: It's a lot of work.

CORY: It's a lot of work, and natives are adapted to our climate.

Everybody, when I moved here said, "Well, wait for Cincinnati weather.

It's going to be raining one minute and it's going to be dry the next."

Well, you know what?

The plants aren't fooled.

They evolved here.

They're used to it.

You don't have to water them.

You put them in the ground.

For first couple of years, you have to kind of baby them a bit because just like any plant, they need some help.

CHRIS: Right.

CORY: Once they're established, there's nothing to do.

You can go out in your yard and appreciate what you've planted, instead of working every day just to keep it alive.

CHRIS: That's awesome.

So if I am a homeowner, how do I get my hands on this?

CORY: So, we -- there's a number of ways.

So we have two large plant sales every year.

Now that we have this great facility, we're going to have more.

>> We have a butterfly garden in our house, and this is something that we can't find at the local nursery, so we thought it'd be fun to put it in our garden.

Well, last year we planted some milkweed and we got some Monarch butterflies that came and had little babies, so we got to watch them turn from the caterpillar into a butterfly, so that was a lot of fun.

>> Oh, I've got a bunch of herbs, some chamomile for my tea, tarragon for my vinegars, and rosemary because my rosemary always dies.

One reason why I plant a lot of what I do, because I like to watch the birds, the butterflies.

I think it's their garden as much as mine.

So, you know, so it's a shared effort.

I put it in, you know, they pollinate it, so.

CHRIS: So, why is planting local native plants so important for local ecosystems?

CORY: So over millions of years you have herbivorous insects, you have birds, you have plants, you have soil organisms.

They all evolved in concert, and so -- CHRIS: Just kind of all together.

CORY: All together at once.

And so when you suddenly introduced plants that didn't evolve in those areas, the herbivores don't know what to do with them.

If they do eat them, their systems may not be able to process what they're eating.

And so it disrupts the entire sort of balance, if you will, of that ecosystem.

CHRIS: Because they didn't evolve along with it.

CORY: Exactly.

CHRIS: Got it.

CORY: So it's this concept that we want people to plant native, but it's not just for the sake of planting native, it's for the sake of the entire native habitat.

CHRIS: That's really important because insects as a whole aren't doing very well.

And so they almost need those plants to eat and a place to live.

CORY: One of the things I tell people is not only plant native, but be lazy.

In the fall in winter, when most people are getting ready to sort of put their yard to rest for the year, don't do anything.

Those dead flower stalks that are coming up, the woodpile that might have been in the corner of your yard for a while, those things are great for insects, great for those those species that need that habitat to over winter.

CHRIS: And it's going to be great for other species that rely on those insects.

CORY: A hundred percent.

CHRIS: So not just birds, but plants, too, because all those insects are pollinators.

CORY: Right, exactly.

It's not just about the plants.

It's about everything that depends on those plants.

CHRIS: It's about supporting the whole ecosystem.

CORY: Right.

CHRIS: Gotcha.

Well, that's awesome what you guys are doing.

I'm really excited to see more native plants around the area.

So thank you so much for taking me around.

CORY: No problem.

CHRIS: I appreciate it.

Chemicals can tell us a lot about the world around us.

They can tell us how animals live, what they eat, and what kind of threats they're facing.

Dr. Brooke Crowley is a chemist at the University of Cincinnati.

She's going to show us how she uses chemistry to solve mysteries of the natural world.

DR. CROWLEY: So my name is Brooke Crowley and I am an associate professor.

I'm in the Department of Geology and Anthropology at the University of Cincinnati.

I think of myself sort of as an ecological detective.

What I do is I use chemistry to answer questions about animals, both that are alive today and that we're alive in the past and are now extinct.

Geochemistry is a really great tool for being able to actually, like reconstruct the diet of a species that's now extinct or reconstruct the kind of environment in which it lived.

I have parents who are both very interested in science, and I have a father who was a high school and middle school science teacher.

But I've always had a deep curiosity and interest and love for being outdoors and knowing more about the natural world.

CHRIS: Hey, Brooke.

DR. CROWLEY: Well, hi, Chris.

CHRIS ANDERSON: How's it going?

DR. CROWLEY: It's super.

CHRIS: So you are a detective?

DR. CROWLEY: Yeah.

CHRIS: A chemistry detective.

DR. CROWLEY: Yes.

CHRIS: What kind of mysteries are you solving these days?

DR. CROWLEY: So, I've worked in Madagascar now and with Madagascar for over a decade.

And I've answered all sorts of questions about the animals that live there today and that used to live there in the past.

CHRIS: So what are some of the issues that Madagascar is facing that you're trying to help solve?

DR. CROWLEY: Well, there's very little of the natural vegetation left.

So estimates are somewhere around 16% of the forest cover that was there before people arrived, which is a dramatic decline.

And there's been a lot of recent extinctions.

And so some of the kinds of research I have been doing have been answering questions about what those extinct species ate, the kind of environments in which they lived, when they went extinct.

And so I've pieced together a puzzle about, not just lemurs.

So there's a lot -- lemurs are the primates of Madagascar.

I forgot to mention that.

So they only live on Madagascar and there's today over 100 species that have been recognized.

CHRIS: Okay, wow.

DR. CROWLEY: But everything bigger than 10 kilograms went extinct by about a thousand years ago or so, and that includes at least 15 species of extinct lemur, some big guys.

There was a lemur the size of a gorilla.

CHRIS: Oh, that's a -- DR. CROWLEY: Yeah, yeah.

Today everybody's small, but there were big lemurs in the past.

There were also hippopotamuses that were native to Madagascar and giant tortoises, and a number of other kind of more enigmatic, bizarre critters.

CHRIS: So how do you go about answering these questions?

What kind of data do you take when you're in the field?

DR. CROWLEY: Well, I work mostly, especially with the extinct animals, I work with bone or we collect material from museum collections.

CHRIS ANDERSON: So this is a - - This is a bone from a lemur?

DR. CROWLEY: Yes, this is a little fragment of bone from a lemur.

CHRIS: Okay.

DR. CROWLEY: And so I get sent a little bits of bone or I collect them in a museum and then I do some chemical processing to isolate certain compound of the bone, usually it's the protein.

But I would estimate that it's somewhere between 5,000-10,000 years old based on the ages of other things that we've gotten from this particular site.

CHRIS: Wow.

So you collect these samples, you go out in the field and you collect these bone samples.

DR. CROWLEY: Yep.

CHRIS: You look at their proteins.

So what do you look for that can tell you about their lives?

DR. CROWLEY: Well, specifically, I look -- when I'm looking at bone protein, I look at carbon and nitrogen in the bone.

CHRIS ANDERSON: Okay.

DR. CROWLEY: And I use isotopes of the carbon and nitrogen to interpret the diet that they eat and the kind of habitat in which they lived.

CHRIS: Can you show me how you measure this?

DR. CROWLEY: Would you like to see the instrument?

CHRIS: I would love to see the instrument.

DR. CROWLEY: Yeah, sure, I can do that.

So this is called an elemental analyzer.

We call it an EA for short.

And so the way this works is there is a wheel up here that has 50 little holes in it.

CHRIS: Okay.

DR. CROWLEY: We can put little samples in those holes.

And in order to keep our samples sort of separate and clean, we wrap them in little tiny tin boats of like tin foil.

CHRIS: Oh.

DR. CROWLEY: We use these trays to keep it organized.

CHRIS: So there's little pieces of bone in the tin foil.

DR. BROOKE CROWLEY: Yes, indead.

Yep, yep.

So we carefully will put those in the little wheel.

And then as the machine runs, it advances one at a time and drops one sample down.

Now this is a tube here that takes this into a furnace.

When it's running is at a thousand degrees Celsius.

So it's very effective for burning up a little tiny things.

And the tin actually helps the sample combust completely.

CHRIS: Okay.

DR. CROWLEY: We then pass the sample through a column that's filled with copper and that removes oxygen.

And we really just want to end up with nice clean carbon dioxide gas and nitrogen gas for running on the mass spec.

CHRIS: All right.

So you take these little pieces about you drop them in the wheel.

DR. CROWLEY: Yep.

CHRIS: They burn at a thousand degrees Celsius and they turn it to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas.

DR. CROWLEY: Yep.

And then it passes through the tube for a little longer and eventually it gets sent over to the mass spec where we measure the ratio of 13C to 12C and the ratio of 15 nitrogen to 14 nitrogen oxide to look at those isotopes in those particular elements.

Now we're looking at the mass spec.

So this is essentially the brain of the instrument.

CHRIS: Okay.

DR. CROWLEY: The elemental analyzer, we're looking at the back of it over here.

And there's little tubes which are -- that's actually where the sample would pass.

These little metal tubes eventually come -- yep, the sample passes as a gas through all of that and eventually ends up in this instrument.

CHRIS: Okay, this guy right here.

DR. CROWLEY: And so what we have in here is we have the ability to ionize the gas and make it charged.

And then we pass it through a magnet and across and we shoot it down a tube and there's a magnet that bends the samples and it bends the samples depending on how much they weigh.

CHRIS: How much they weigh?

Okay.

So that goes into those isotopes.

So what exactly are isotopes?

DR. CROWLEY: So isotopes are different atoms of the same elements that have a different number of neutrons, but the same charge.

So they have the same number of electrons and the same number of protons.

They just weigh slightly different amounts.

Our typical isotopes that we use in ecological contexts are oxygen.

We use oxygen 18, and carbon, we use carbon 13, which has one more neutron than our normal carbon 12.

We use nitrogen 15 versus nitrogen 14.

So again, there's one neutron extra in nitrogen 15.

But that little extra mass makes the heavier isotopes slightly more sluggish, so it reacts slightly slower.

CHRIS: So what can those differences tell you about the samples that you've taken?

DR. CROWLEY: Different isotopes have different sort of things that allow them to, their strengths, if you will.

So the more isotopes we analyze, the more we can say about a system.

So we expect to see more 15 N relative to 14 N for animals that eat more meat.

So there's a trophic level effect.

And for carbon, it can also tell us something about environment.

So that's where we also see different isotope ratios for carbon in dry and moist habitats or also in hot versus cold habitats.

But among animals that coexist, we may be able to see small differences between species that eat different diets.

And then the other thing about carbon is it's very good for distinguishing habitats.

So if you have animals living more in an open habitat, like a savanna, or in a closed forest environment, or within a forest but down on the forest floor versus up in the canopy, those can have very distinct carbon isotope value.

CHRIS: Okay, so the more isotopes you're able to see the difference of, the bigger picture that -- DR. CROWLEY: Yes.

CHRIS: -- what their world was like.

DR. CROWLEY: Yes, exactly.

So we often will use multiple different isotope systems to interpret the past.

CHRIS: Oh, that's really cool.

DR. CROWLEY: Yeah, I think so.

CHRIS: Yeah.

CHRIS: So, what kind of eco-systems have you been able to reconstruct?

DR. CROWLEY: in Madagascar specifically we have been able to determine that in the past that was dry, very much like it is today on the West.

So this idea about having long term data is really important for understanding the species that are still around today.

So what we know is that Madagascar is highly modified.

And what that means is that observation data for species that are around today in protected reserves may not be indicative of normal behavior.

CHRIS: Well, thank you, Brooke, so much for showing me around your lab and telling me all the cool mysteries that you're solving with chemistry.

It's really awesome work you're doing.

DR. CROWLEY: It's been a pleasure.

Thank you very much for your interest.

CHRIS: That's our show.

Thank you so much for watching.

We hope you learned a little more on how we can take care of our planet's ecosystems.

We'll see you next time on Science Around Cincy.

>> You're rolling.

A little bit wide, sorry.

CHRIS: -- protecting local plants.

Nope.

Hey, everyone, my name is Chris Anderson.

>> Again, still going.

CHRIS: Still good?

>> Yeah.

CHRIS: All right.

Science Around Cincy is an independently produced collaboration between educators and students in Cincinnati and Northern Kentucky.

Funding is provided in part by: Northern Kentucky University's College of Informatics and Department of Communication, the Hamilton County Educational Service Center, Outsider Productions, and Fuel Cincinnati.

Stay curious, my friends.

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