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In Your Classroom: "Got Clones?"
by The segment on "cloning" provides a timely opportunity to introduce students to bioethical decision-making. We are inundated almost daily by new advances in science which necessitate such decisions. From agricultural applications, such as genetically modified foods and pesticide resistant crops, to more personal relevancies, such as genetic testing, new reproductive technologies and stem cell research, we need to be able to sort our way through these choices. Some of these issues are societal, some are personal. All are difficult.
There is one important distinction between the process of bioethical decision-making and debate, however. In debate, the decision comes first, and then arguments are marshaled to support the decision, be it pro or con. In bioethical decision-making, the decision comes last, and I often find that students end up in a place that surprises them. In addition, a bioethical decision can be judged only by the process which led to it, not the decision itself.
To start with, we need to define the term "dilemma" in an ethical context. An ethical dilemma results when two or more ethical principles are in conflict. There are only four ethical principles: beneficence (doing good), non-maleficence (doing no harm), justice (equal consequences) and autonomy (the ability to make one's own decisions). To use a petty example, we all know that yelling "fire!" in a crowded room is unacceptable, but here we can easily see that two ethical principles, autonomy and non-maleficence, are in conflict. It is not hard to see which takes precedence in this situation, but this example may be useful in helping students understand something about ethical principles.
An understanding of ethical systems comprises another useful part of ethical decision-making. One could easily spend days, weeks, or even years discussing ethical systems, but they can be divided roughly into four categories:
* Utilitarianism--usefulness of decision more important than the means to get there
* Deontology--"duty" is the important factor, e.g., one must be honest no matter the consequences
* Relativism--the mores of a culture determine the rightness or wrongness of an ethical decision
* Virtue Ethics/Divine command--a standard outside the mores of society, "God," determines the value of an ethical decision
Each system has its positive and negative aspects. I have added a "dialogue" at the end of this piece, developed by Janet Lasley and Ilayna Picket, that I use to help students sort these out.
Myriad models of bioethical decision-making exist, and one can be overwhelmed by the seemingly infinite choices, but all models have the following steps in common.
* Identify and state the dilemma. What principles are in conflict? One principle cannot be satisfied without compromising others.
* Research and obtain information.
* Identify and rank the stakeholders. Who is affected by the decision?
* Identify the issue(s) for each stakeholder.
* Rank these issues, using the information gathered.
* Identify possible solutions for each stakeholder. Have students come up with at least three solutions.
* Rank the solutions. Consider the following questions: Which causes the least harm? Which does the most good? Which is fairest? Listing the positive and negative points of each is useful.
* Choose the best solution. Solutions can be proposed to the group for discussion as a "town meeting," a panel discussion with a moderator, or a role-play. A course of action must result from this stem.
* Test the solution. Are you comfortable with the decision? Would you want it applied to you?
Remember, there is no right answer, but there are better and best answers in ethical decision making.
DIALOGUE
THE DILEMMA: Mary stole a copy of the final for Biology and circulated it among her friends. You have an opportunity to see the final. You are torn; should you look or not? After all, you are about in the middle of this class, and only those students who score in the top 50% will be allowed to go into the advanced class, which is highly regarded on a college application. Of course, if you do not see the final your chance of being in that top 50% are slim. Should you look at the test? Should you turn in Mary for cheating? Here's what your friends say, according to their ethical systems:
RELATIVISM:
Rita: I think that in today's society cheating of this sort is so usual that there is no particular reason not to look at the test.
Robert: Yeah, look at all the security around testing. It wouldn't be necessary if they didn't think we were going to cheat. It's like they almost expect it.
Roger: I've heard of schools with honor systems and if you went there you might feel differently, but we're here. You know, when in Rome do as the Romans....
DIVINE COMMAND:
Donna: First of all, it seems that having this information is a form of stealing information that is not yours. Didn't we learn in church that we shouldn't steal?
Doris: Yes, and if you use this information to get a better score, aren't you representing yourself as being more knowledgeable that you really are. This sounds a lot like bearing false witness which I've always learned as wrong.
Dick: But also remember, the Lord helps those who help themselves!
UTILITARIANISM:
Eugene: I think the real issue here is whether the ends justify the means.
Eunice: On the whole cheating may be bad, but in this case the greater good might come because you could do a decent job on this test and be able to take the next class.
Eudora: When you look at all the alternatives, like doing poorly, dealing with mad friends if you turn them in, or just using the answers, it seems like just using the answers comes out on top for me.
Ulysses: In this case, keeping quiet offers the greatest benefit for the least cost.
Yvonne: Maybe for you, Ulysses, but I think the costs of a guilty conscience and fear of being discovered outweigh the risks of telling.
DEONTOLOGY:
Deb: It seems like you ought to look at the moral rules that come into play in a situation like this.
Dahlia: Yeah, what about justice, equal treatment and refraining from evil?
Dan: Maybe you should balance the rules by the specifics of the situation. Can this decision be applied beyond just the person in this exact situation? How are you using yourself and other people?
VIRTUE ETHICS:
Valerie: I think that to deal with this dilemma you ought to look deep inside yourself and see what your motives are.
Vince: Like if you ratted on your friends just to call attention to yourself, you wouldn't really have made any progress on this issue at all. You would have just done another wrong.
Victor: I think you would feel better about yourself if you overcame the temptation to use the answers because you knew it was wrong, instead of just because you knew it was expected of you, or were afraid of being caught.
DIALOGUE
THE DILEMMA: Mary stole a copy of the final for Biology and circulated it among her friends. You have an opportunity to see the final. You are torn; should you look or not? After all, you are about in the middle of this class grade wise, and only those students who score in the top 50% will be allowed to go into the advanced class, which is highly regarded on a college application. Of course, if you do not see the final your chance of being in that top 50% are slim. Should you look at the test? Should you turn in Mary for cheating? Here's what your friends say, according to their ethical systems:
RELATIVISM:
Rita: I think that in today's society cheating of this sort is so usual that there is no particular reason not to look at the test.
Robert: Yeah, look at all the security around testing. It wouldn't be necessary if they didn't think we were going to cheat. It's like they almost expect it.
Roger: I've heard of schools with honor systems and if you went there you might feel differently, but we're here. You know, when in Rome do as the Romans....
DIVINE COMMAND:
Donna: First of all, it seems that having this information is a form of stealing information that is not yours. Didn't we learn in church that we shouldn't steal?
Doris: Yes, and if you use this information to get a better score, aren't you representing yourself as being more knowledgeable that you really are. This sounds a lot like bearing false witness which I've always learned as wrong.
Dick: But also remember, the Lord helps those who help themselves!
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